Communication Styles in Different Cultures Essay

Communication Styles in Different Cultures - Essay Example One major difference between our cultures is knowing when handshaking is appropriate. In Australian culture, this is an acceptable way of greeting both males and females. However, in Saudi culture, there are many restrictions in greeting with regards to gender. Lewis noted this in his interactions with people in the Arab world and concluded that being respectful at all times towards male and female Arabs is the best form of communication ( 2001). Personally, I have been in many uncomfortable situations when I was offered a hand by a female friend and I was not completely certain what I was expected to do. In these situations, I was afraid to offend my close friends but was hesitant to do something that is so taboo in my native land. In Australia, handshaking seems to be appropriate between men and women but in Saudi culture, handshaking between different genders is prohibited from due to religious belief. My Australian friend advised me that if shaking a females hand makes me uncomfo rtable, then I should be open and honest about it. I was assured that this would be acceptable and would not be offensive to most Australians. One of the new things that I learned is how to make refusal in a suitable way. I didn't want to be rude with Jonathan but our cultures differ greatly in this respect. In Australian culture, disagreement can be done in a very direct way and can be confrontational. This is not considered rude. However, in Saudi culture, it is best done in an indirect way avoiding any confrontation because the concept of friendship in Arabic culture is different.

Importance Of Privacy Scale Survey Essay Example for Free

Importance Of Privacy Scale Survey Essay A survey is a systematic process by which data is collected from or about people, places, or things with a description, comparison, and/or explanation relating to their knowledge, stance, and behavior. The process is made up of seven different activities: setting objectives in order to collect data, designing the study, preparing an unfailing and official survey mechanism, administering the survey, managing and examining the survey data, and eventually reporting the results. (Fink, 2002) The survey is conducted by inquiry where people give consent to be asked specified questions and they give answers as well. It may be completed orally, in written form, or visually. Surveys are also conducted visually to examine people’s reactions to a specific model. For example, surveys may be conducted to see how people react to the taste of certain juices. It is obvious that most people would not like a bitter juice while others will like juices like lemonade, which is sour, or kool-aid which is often sweet. In this specified survey, it is concerning issues with regard to intrusive measures of privacy in effort of preventing future terrorist attacks. Politicians need to be aware of how the public feels regarding these issues. The wording or phrasing of the questions allows the consenting public to give very direct answers concerning these issues. If the wording were different, the answers may be very vague; therefore, the poll would not obtain the results necessary to make the right improvements to take the essential measures to ensure safety. Also if the right survey instrument is not used, it may manipulate the survey negatively which makes it invalid and useless. It is very important to use the right methodology pertaining to the topic of the survey to acquire accurate results. By wording questions very similar, it allow the surveyor to attain a confirmation of the previous question making the answer more valid and more definite. I used this repetitive strategy for this reason and also to help eliminate bias that is sometimes found in conducting surveys. (â€Å"Opinion Poll†, 2009) The purpose of this survey is to provide the public with very basic questions concerning the approval of taking intrusive measures to aid in the prevention of future terrorist attacks. Politicians and the government alike are eager to know how the public feels about the topic of invading privacy for this reason and in order to obtain that specific information this survey is necessary. Works Cited Fink, A. (2002). The Survey Handbook. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc. Fink, A. (1995). How to Analyze Survey Data (Survey Kit, 8). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc. Opinion poll. (2009, March 27). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 02:39, March 31, 2009, from

cognitive models and theories

cognitive models and theories

Volcanoes Essay -- essays research papers fc

A Look Into Volcanoes I. Introduction Volcano: defined is a mountain or hill formed by the accumulation of materials erupted through one or more openings (called volcanic vents) in the earth's surface. The term volcano can also refer to the vents themselves. Most volcanoes have steep sides, but some can be gently sloping mountains or even flat tablelands, plateaus, or plains. The volcanoes above sea level are the best known, but the vast majority of the world's volcanoes lie beneath the sea, formed along the global oceanic ridge systems that crisscross the deep ocean floor. According to the Smithsonian Institution, 1511 above-sea volcanoes have been active during the past 10,000 years, 539 of them erupting one or more times during written history. On average, 50 to 60 above-sea volcanoes worldwide are active in any given year; about half of these are continuations of eruptions from previous years, and the rest are new. Mount St. Helen Volcanic eruptions in populated regions are a significant threat to peo ple, property, and agriculture. The danger is mostly from fast-moving, hot flows of explosively erupted materials, falling ash, and highly destructive lava flows and volcanic debris flows. In addition, explosive eruptions, even from volcanoes in unpopulated regions, can eject ash high into the atmosphere, creating drifting volcanic ash clouds that pose a serious hazard to airplanes. II. Volcano Formation All volcanoes are formed by the accumulation of magma which is molten rock that forms below the earth's surface. Magma can erupt through one or more volcanic vents, which can be a single opening, a cluster of openings, or a long crack, called a fissure vent. It forms deep within the earth, generally within the upper part of the mantle which is one of the layers of the earth's crust, or less commonly, within the base of the earth's crust. High temperatures and pressures are needed to form magma. The solid mantle or crustal rock must be melted under conditions typically reached at dep ths of 50 to 60 mi. (80 to 100 km) below the earth's surface. Once tiny droplets of magma are formed, they begin to rise because the magma is less dense than the solid rock surrounding it. The processes that cause the magma to rise are poorly understood, but it generally moves upward toward lower pressure regions, squeezing into spaces between minerals within the soli... ...the first blobs of melt. As melting continues other minerals start to melt as well, and the chemistry of the magma changes. From studies like this geologists have determined that the early stages of a Hawaiian volcano's life is generated by magmas derived from only small degrees of partial melting (such as only 5% of the source melting and the rest staying behind). On the other hand, when the volcano really gets going (such as at Kilauea and Mauna Loa), the percentage of source rock that melts to produce the magma is perhaps as high as 20%. There are many other ways in which chemistry is used in volcanology, including the studies of volcanic gases, crater lakes, and trying to determine the temperatures that lava had at the time they were erupted even long after the eruption has ended. Bibliography Bibliography 1999 Microsoft Encarta; Volcanoes 1980 USGS; www.vulcan.wr.usgs.gov 2000 Volcano World; http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/frequent-questions/grp13/question1544.html 1980-2000 USGS; www.vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/photo/volcanoes/MSH/framework.html 1993-2000 Microsoft Corporation; various volcano media 2000 FEMA; www.fema.gov/library/volcanof.htm Word Count: 2186

Intelligence Testing Article

There is not one precise definition of intelligence. But, the idea of intelligence can be seen as a cluster of mental abilities that has the ability to obtain and use knowledge, exhibit problem-solving skills, and to excel at a variety of tasks (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Intelligence is a necessary factor that allows one to adapt to one’s environment. But outside of the dominion of cultural context, intelligence cannot be really explained; this is because questions on intelligence tests that are scored often do not have the same meaning in every culture (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Howard Gardner’s theory proposed his own view of intelligence in which he claimed that seven intelligences work independently but concurrently, completing one another. The PASS theory, a basis for the Cognitive Assessment System, features three functional units. Both these theories have a significant impact within psychology and smooth out the loose ends of extensive cross-cultural cracks in calculating tools. Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Howard Gardner offered an alternative understanding of intelligence, which added to the traditional definition; it incorporated three-dimensional relations, mathematics, music, linguistic ability, and interpersonal knowledge (Kaufman, 2013). Gardner (1989), defined intelligence as â€Å"the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting† (P. 4). His definition acknowledged mathematical and verbal skills. Gardner’s theory outlines seven intelligences; linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, bodily, musical, intrapersonal, and two personal intelligences of social feelings and intentions of others. According to the theory of multiple intelligences, the intelligences work simultaneously, accompanying one another while an individual learns, develops, improves, and masters life skills. Gardner argued for the cultural and biological basis by emphasizing the outcomes of neurobiological research, which maintenances knowledge as a result of basic function capability and changes. Gardner not only had his biological origin for multiple intelligences, he also believes that culture plays an important role in the development of intelligence than traditionally acknowledged (Gardner, 1983). Some cultures value and preserve certain types of intelligences, especially if they help with the improvement and maintenance of a culture. The more appreciated a skill is, the more one is driven to know and thrive in that particular discipline. A particular intelligence can be very much developed due to a culture’s value, while others may not develop or develop hardly at all (Gardner, 1983). PASS Theory The PASS theory of intelligence proposes that cognition is organized in three functional units that are applied widely to IQ tests. According to Luria’s idea of this model, PASS stands for Planning, Attention-Arousal, and Simultaneous and Successive model of processing (Kaufman, 2013). According to this model, the first functional unit’s job is to focus and sustain attention. The second function is the attention process, which maintains alertness and arousal levels, and warrants focus on important stimuli. The final functional unit accepts and stores information with consecutive and concurrent processing. PASS theory challenges what is the foundation of all cognitive processes; G-based theories. G-based theories of human intelligence say that â€Å"human intellectual functioning is best described as a unitary class† (Das & Abbott, 1995). The challenge comes from the fact that g-theory believes that neuropsychological research that establishes the brain is made up of diverse codependent organisms (Das & Abbott, 1995). The PASS theory seeks to explain intelligence in a more dynamically appropriate sense and to overcome gaps from the traditional IQ test. IQ tests are based on outdates theories that rely on correlations between the IQ scores, but not taking into consideration that intelligence is evolving and unsolidified. Intelligence Testing The reason that traditional IQ testing is not reliable is because they are built on the concept that intelligence is mainly methodical and fixed. Gardner believed in calculating intellectual tendencies at an early age because he did not believe intelligences are permanent (Morgan, 1996). As cultures vary, they reach intelligence at different levels and they may see certain skills and knowledge of more value than others (Kaufman, 2013). Gardner’s theory is flexible to the dissimilarities in intelligences cross-culturally and is genuine in measuring intelligence (Morgan, 1996). The PASS theory emphasizes on developments, rather than intelligence and capability helps with being familiar cross-culturally, and is rather reasonable as oppose to general IQ testing (Das & Abbott, 1995). General IQ testing and similar tests stress the importance of language and mathematical abilities,; this is not exactly accurate cross-cultural measurement (Kaufman, 2013). Conclusion The unfairness of intelligence testing is submerged. The measurements of these tests are reliable, but only to a small fraction of the population cross-culturally. Both theories mentioned smooth out the bumps of widespread gaps in effective measuring tools when it comes to cross-cultural population. Different cultures cannot be effectively measured by traditional IQ and similar psychological tests. When the correlations of social success and IQ scores are matched, they show an inaccurate picture of bias constructed with things like sexism and racism. The measurement of intelligence must take into account the essential cultural perspective of knowledge and learning.

love in the gift of the magi Essays

love in the gift of the magi Essays love in the gift of the magi Essay love in the gift of the magi Essay Love is of great concern not only for the young but for all people. As Khalil Gibran said that Life without love is like a tree without blossoms or fruit. Indeed, love appears everywhere and at any moment, it always exists in the depth of each person. True love doesnt happen right away; its an ever-growing process. It develops after youve gone through many ups and downs, when youve suffered together, cried together, laughed together (Ricardo Montalban). As a typical example, love between Jim and Della in The gift of the Magi written by O. Henry is worth thinking about. It is love of deep understanding and great sacrifice for each other. At the beginning of the story is Della flopping down on the shabby with great disappointment. All she has is Just one dollar and eighty-seven cents saved by bargaining the grocer and the vegetable man. However the only thing she cared for is how to give her husband whom she spent her best love for a Christmas present. To Della, Jim is the most precious person and she could not have lived through Christmas without giving Jim a present. Afterward, she had her beautiful hair cut and sold it to get enough money to buy something fine and rare and sterling that is worth the love she has for him. And that is a platinum chain for his watch. This not only displays her love, but also great sacrifice for the love. Ironically, Jim sold the watch to buy Della a comb at the same time because he knew that she wanted to have it for a long time and that beautiful comb would be suitable for her great hair. They always care for each other, they know exactly what the other needs and wants, hich shows how much deeply they understand each other. Additionally, Both Jim and Della have two most important and priced possessions-Dellas hair which is long and beautiful and Jims watch which has been a family possession passed down through generations from fathers to their sons. Because of their financial constraints they have no choice but to sacrifice the only possessions that they treasure in their lives for the sake of expression their love. There was no greater sacrifice that would have been offered apart from what the two did. Their gifts carry not only the sincere, strong and deep love but the considerable sacrifice for each other. It is understandable that the deep love between Jim and Della makes great impression on the readers. Their love does not consist in gazing at each other, but in looking outward together in the same direction (Antoine de Saint Exupery). Despite the risks, humiliation and costs of the sacrifice each of them is ready to lose what they have to express their love, which makes love between them like a eternally burning fire love in the gift of the magi By hoanglachy

10 Phrases Youre Probably Saying Wrong

10 Phrases Youre Probably Saying Wrong 1. Prostrate CancerThis one goes hand in hand (er†¦ well†¦ goes along with) â€Å"anticdote.† Prostate cancer is experienced by thousands of individuals annually. Prostrate (note the â€Å"r†) has to do with being flat on the ground.   2. First-Come, First-ServeI know, I know, you’re probably well aware that it’s actually first served and it’s just verbal shorthand. But†¦ prove to everyone else that you know it, and you just might help them realize they don’t want to be asking the first people there to serve everyone else.  3. Sneak PeakFun with homophones! Peak, Peek, and Pique are three different words. A peak is the top of a mountain. A peek is a quick look (what you’re sneaking). And pique is what you storm away in a fit of, or perhaps something â€Å"piqued your interest.†Ã‚  4. Deep-SeededThis one sounds like it could be correct! Something planted very deeply as a seed would have roots and be hard to era dicate! But when it comes to language, logic is sometimes the great betrayer. What you’re actually thinking of is â€Å"Deep seated†, and it means firmly established.  5. Extract RevengeIf revenge were a potion and someone had stolen yours and you needed to retrieve it by squeezing, what you’d doing is exacting revenge.  6. Shoe-inThis is the location of your Birkenstocks, right? Because â€Å"shoo-in† is a guarantee.  7. Emigrated toIn this current state of difficulty for immigrants and emigrants alike, the least we can all do- I mean the absolute bare minimum- is to learn that you immigrate to a place, and emigrate from a place. Let the origin or the destination guide whether you emphasize it.  8. Baited BreathThink of it this way- what do fisherpeople use for bait? It all smells gross, right? You wouldn’t want that on your breath. But you might hold it for a minute if the bait got near you- in other words it would have abated. Thusly, ba ted breath is breath that is held in anticipation.  9. 10 Items or LessThis one drives me batty in checkout lines all over the country. Less is for liquids. If you can measure it by moving your thumb and forefinger closer or apart, it’s less. If it’s anything you can count (like the items in your grocery cart), for â€Å"not as many,† it’s fewer.  10. Over 50 billion servedThough we could parse who they’ve served and how well they’ve done it, what McDs means is more than. Think of the cow jumping over (i.e. above) the moon. She probably saw more than 50 billion stars up there!

History of Management Thought Revision Essay Example

History of Management Thought Revision Essay Example History of Management Thought Revision Paper History of Management Thought Revision Paper rewarded for teaching and developing your employees. c. Gantts emphasis on the importance of morale. d. The Gantt Chart steadily evolved into a valuable tool for scheduling (planning) and controlling work. (1)Widely used during World War I (2)Became an international management technique. (3)A forerunner of subsequent planning and controlling techniques such as major milestones, PERT, CPM. e. The New Machine a group headed by Gantt to promote the idea that engineers should be industrial leaders. Social responsibility Gantts concern that business should not lose sight of its service role in the economy. C. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 1. Frank worked in the construction trades and called his job design motion study. Independent of, but influenced by, Taylor. 2. Lillian our First Lady of Management for her accomplishments with her husband as well as after Franks death. 3. As partners, they made numerous contributions: a. Franks study of bricklaying; motion study; a white list to identify top workers in an appraisal system; and a bonus to employees for suggestions. b. Motion and fatigue study a joint effort to reduce fatigue and improve productivity. (You might suggest that one or more of your students read â€Å"Cheaper by the Dozen† by F. B. Gilbreth, Jr. and Ernestine G. Carey. â€Å"Cheaper by the Dozen† has appeared as a movie twice: the first had Clifton Webb play Frank and Myrna Loy portrayed Lillian; a more recent release has Steve Martin as Frank and Bonnie Hunt as Lillian. If class members can find both of these movies, a comparison and evaluation can be made- and a lively discussion. c. Other contributions: (1)Therbligs (2)Motion pictures with special lighting to study micromotions. Note that Frank offered this technique to Taylor. (3)Process charts to study the flow of work through the shop. (4)Promotion planning. (5) Pioneering work with handicapped employees. d. Psychology of Management Lillians original, but not final, Ph. D. dissertation. It was not industrial psychology, per se, but the psychological intent of scientific management. e. Lillian’s efforts to bring Gilbreth’s motion study and Taylor’s time study are worth mentioning. D. Harrington Emerson 1. He worked largely independent of Frederick Taylor but they corresponded and he was aware of Taylors ideas. . Emersons ideas focused on: a. The lack of organization, in Emersons view, was a major problem. He proposed the line-staff organization as a way of bringing staff knowledge to assist the line managers. b. Emersons line-staff idea was similar to Taylors desire to use the knowledge of functional foreman, but an improvement since it did not split the chain of command. c. Emerson t ook Taylors idea of setting performance standards and applied this to cost accounting. Standards could be established for what the costs should be, rather than estimating costs from previous records. d. Incentives Emerson provided 120% wages for 100% performance (the standard) and that increased if the worker produced more. e. Of Emersons numerous principles: clearly defined ideals (objectives), participative decision making, and the proper use of staff stand out as the more unique of his ideas. f. Emerson established a successful consulting practice and sought to improve ethical practices among consultants. E. Morris Cooke 1. Cooke worked closely with Taylor and became one of the four individuals Taylor considered his disciples (others were Gantt, Barth, and H. King Hathaway). 2. Cookes early work developed when Taylor sent him on various consulting assignments: a. In education, where he felt that college administration was inefficient. b. In government, where Cooke became Director of Public Works for the City of Philadelphia and successfully implemented scientific management. 3. Collaborated with Taylor in preparing Principles of Scientific Management and received the royalties for his efforts. 4. In his later work, Cooke became interested in getting the leaders of organized labor to work within scientific management ideas. a. Suggested that management needed to tap labors brains. b. Worked with labor leaders in gaining a better feeling about union-management cooperation. c. Served Presidents F. D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman in government positions. Chapter 9 The Human Factor: Preparing the Way This chapter has one purpose but many sub-topics. The common element is the emphasis on the human factor as it appeared in personnel management, psychology/ industria l psychology, sociology/industrial sociology, and employee participation in decision making as manifested in the trade union movement and industrial relations, union-management cooperation, and employee representation plans. A. Personnel Management: A Dual Heritage 1. One part of the beginnings of personnel management may be found in the industrial betterment/welfare movement. a. This movement found its basis in the Social Gospel and grew out of a concern for improving industrial conditions. b. A number of companies employed a welfare secretary to advise management. Their duties were many, and in some cases appeared to be paternalistic. c. Many, though not all, of these secretaries were females, perhaps because of their experience in vocational guidance or social work, or perhaps because some of their duties resembled a role stereotype of what a woman did i. e. menus, handling illnesses, etc. 2. Scientific management emphasized improved personnel selection, placement, wage plans, and other matters that involved employee welfare. Taylor had described this role but it was others who advanced personnel management. a. Mary Gilson would be one example of the scientific management viewpoint. b. Also Jane William s at Plimpton Press. c. The Henry Gantt/Elizabeth Briscoe clash at Bancroft Mills relates similarities and differences between the welfarists and those of scientific management. d. Henry Ford and his $5 per day minimum is worth mentioning, as well as his sociological department. (Ask the class what Fords advisers did does this sound like a modern social worker? Also, why was the sociological department changed? ) B. Psychology 1. This section begins with a plutology quote (1863) which resembles A. H. Maslows (1943) hierarchy of needs theory. The purpose is to show that this early insight came from deduction and introspection, not empirical study. 2. The pseudosciences also reflect this introspection, yet some of these, such as graphology and astrology, are claimed today to have merit. Students may comment, and accurately so, that at this point in history these were considered scientific and not pretenders to science. Phrenology is my favorite, especially if you pretend to be an on campus recruiter. ) 3. Industrial Psychology a. Wilhelm Wundt pioneered scientific psychology. b. But more importantly, Hugo Munsterberg applied this scientific approach to industrial problems. c. Munsterberg sought (1)the best possible worker (2)the best possible work (3)the best possible effect d. He advocated (1)tests for worker selection 2)research in the learning process in training (to me, this sounds like an early concept of what we would call transfer of learning theory). e. Others who were early in the field of industrial psychology are mentioned briefly in the text. (They are not emphasized, but you may find a favorite here to assign for your class. ) (1)Charles S. Myers (2)Walter Dill Scott (3)Cecil A. Mace (4)Morris S. Viteles C. The Social Person This section involves the antecedents of industrial sociology as well as sociological theory. (Again, different individuals and contributions are open to your choice. 1. Whiting Williams obviously a favorite of mine, and a person whose ideas have been long neglected. a. A white-collar personnel director who put on the clothes and guise of a worker to study work first hand. That is, a participant-observer. b. Emphasized the centrality of work (before the work of Bob Dubin and George W. England). c. Job defines social status as well as a persons place in the work situation. d. The workplace is a part of a larger social system. e. Saw earnings as a matter of social comparison influencing how a person viewed himself relative to others. My feeling is that Williams should be seen as the originator of equity theory. ) f. Workers mainspring was to be found in their relations with others (is this or is this not a pre-Hawthorne view of human relations? ) g. The Eleventh Commandment Thou shalt not take thy neighbor for granted still good advice. h. My conclusion is that industrial sociology began with Williams, and that the Social Gospel influenced his thought. 2. Sociological theory a. Emile Durkheim (1)anomie normlessness (2)mechanical societies were dominated by a collective consciousness. 3)organic societies were characterized by interdependence and the division of labor, leading to anomie. (Note that some modern writers use other definitions for mechanical and organic. ) (4)Durkheims thinking influenced the human relationists view of the need for social solidarity. b. Vilfredo Pareto (Not one of my favorites as I find his ideas on social systems clouded in jargon. I mention him, however, for : (1) The Pareto Circle that influenced the Harvard version of human relations. (2)Paretos influence on Chester Barnard and cooperative systems. . Social behaviorism may be worth mentioning because of the notion of the social person, the beginning of social psychology, and C. H. Cooleys looking glass self, a very interesting way of looking at the formation of self-efficacy, personality development, and a host of other ideas. d. Gestalt psychology definitely deserves a mention. A number of persons who we will encounter later, such as Mary Follett and Kurt Lewin, were gestaltists and the notion prevails in much of our modern thinking about group dynamics and sociotechnical systems. D. Employee participation in Decision Making This section examines three paths to give employees a â€Å"voice† in the firm or organization: 1. Through membership in a union that would represent the workers’. a. John R. Commons is a substantial figure here. Perhaps the first to use the phrase â€Å"human resources† and considered the â€Å"Father of Industrial Relations. b. Commons was not anti-scientific management because it worked in some firms, but felt workers needed a say-so in the workplace. c. Other economists were interested in â€Å"applied economics† issues such as turnover, job analysis, etc. . The position of Samuel Gompers and the AF of L was to achieve gains for organized labor through bargaining power, not productivity. Gompers said more, more, and then more was what labor wanted. 2. Union-management cooperation a. Morris Cooke, Ordway Tead, and Robert Valentine were examples of those who were trying to reformulate what labor felt was the uny ielding, no union, position of scientific management. The revised emphasis was to be on consent: b. Union-management cooperation plans began when union membership was in decline in the early 1920s. Unions agreed to accept scientific management if they were involved by electing representatives and could bargain about wages, hours, working conditions, and so on. 3. Employee representation plans a. These did not involve unions but the workers elected representatives and participated through shop councils and committees. Unions did not like these plans (no membership dues, perhaps). b. Commons studied 30 of these â€Å"industrial government† or industrial democracy plans. c. Henry Dennison’s plan is noteworthy for its progressiveness. d. The Sage Foundation study indicated most employee representation plans were progressive and improved labor-management relations. (In Part Three we will see the demise of union-management cooperation and employee representation plans with the passage of the National Labor Relations Act. ) Chapter 10 The Emergence of Management and Organization Theory This chapter discusses the work of two major management theorists, Henri Fayol and Max Weber. Fayol provided the basis for the modern approach to general management theory through the management process. Weber conceptualized bureaucracy to provide a formal approach to organization theory. A. Henri Fayol 1. Fayol was an engineer who rose in the management hierarchy to become the Director (CEO) of a large-scale, fully integrated enterprise formed his conception of management as the general activity of integrating the functions of the firm in order to intelligently use resources to attain the objectives of the firm. In the opening pages, note how he built his theory from his experiences. 2. While Frederick Taylor was more production oriented, Fayols viewpoint was that of general management. . Fayol drew certain conclusions from his experiences: a. Managerial abilities differed from technical ones, and the success of the firm depended to a greater degree on good managers than good technicians. b. Fayol felt that every organization required management regardless of whether it was commercial, industry, politics, religion, war etc. I feel there is much misunderstanding about what Fayol intended. This statement of his suggests the universality of management in that this activity is necessary in all organizations. It does not mean, at least to me, that managers are universal, that any manager can manage any organization. (This point is arguable and merits class discussion. ) c. Managers needed certain qualities, knowledge, and experience. d. Managerial abilities become more important as a person moves up in the hierarchy; technical abilities are less essential for upper level managers. (I like to point out to my students that most CEOs still have a fond place in their heart for their technical specialties engineering, chemistry, whatever even though they must decide for the firm as a whole. e. Management could be taught in schools and universities but was not because of the absence of management theory. (Theory has many meanings for individuals so you might ask your students to give their definition and compare that with Fayols. ) 4. Fayols Principles of Management (This is one of those areas where controversy can thrive some maintain that management principles is an oxymoron. My approach is to stress his disclaimer that there is nothing rigid or absolute in management and that Fayols principles were guides, lighthouses, but not absolutes nor universals. Since he has 14 principles, I do not try to cover them all but stress those below. ) a. Division of labor he appears rather traditional here regarding work design, but note the job enlargement he practiced in the Commentry coal mine. b. Authority the point here is his distinction between formal authority, the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience, and personal authority which was a compound of intelligence, experience, moral worth, ability to lead and so forth. Fayol was aware of the need to combine and complement the authority of position with leadership qualities. c. Unity of command standard, but worth a reminder for the students. d. Unity of direction good advice to a lot of organizations. e. Centralization note that this does not mean that all decisions are made by top level management but finding where decisions should be made depending on the factors Fayol mentions. f. The gangplank, a means for providing lateral communications. Fayols French for this was passerelle which translates as a bridge, foot-bridge, or gangway. Gangplank was Constance Storrs translation for passerelle but I am often reminded that gangplank is also what the pirates made you walk if you were behaving badly! ) g. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. Put this in a contemporary context by asking students for examples of persons who use their position of authority to serve their self-interest rather than the interests of the firmâ€⠄¢s employees, shareholders, etc. 5. Fayols Elements of Management (This is another area that is plagued by terminology. Most introductory management texts use some version of Fayols description of what managers did, but the labels are different. ) a. Planning also could be translated as foresight, but very basic to Fayols theory: (1)Plans depended on the firms resources, work in process, and future trends that could not be predetermined. (Note that Fayols ideas resemble what would be called a strategic audit. ) (2)Plans needed to have the characteristics of unity, continuity, flexibility, and precision. 3)Long range planning certainly a unique idea for his time but a valuable contribution in the evolution of strategic management. b. Organizing Fayol included both the design of the organization and the staffing job of the manager in this element (I tell my class that organizational design is like developing the plot and roles in a drama, while staffing is selecting and rehearsing individuals to fill those roles. Try it, and let me know if it works for you. ) (1)Structure of the organization had to be consistent with the objectives, resources, and requirements of the firm. 2)Functional and scalar growth (these are described, but you may wish to review these concepts so you can explain Fayols span of control ideas. ) (3)Span of control relatively narrow at the top, but greater at lower levels, according to Fayol. (4)Staff (advisory personnel, not to be confused, as it often is, with staffing. No wonder our students struggle with the language of management. ) On the subject of staff, Fayol disagreed with Taylor; that is, line managers needed staff advice but not through functional foremen advising workers. 5)Staffing (today we call it personnel or human resource management) involved selection, evaluation, and training of personnel. c. Command: Fayols term for directing, leading, supervising, actuating, or whatever. d. Coordination: harmonizing the activities of the organization. e. Control: checking on performance to identify and make corrections, if necessary. 6. The author concludes that Fayol was a â€Å"strategist† before that term became popular. Discuss the pros and cons of Fayol as using strategic management skills. (Fayol spent relatively little time discussing command, coordination, and control. The point I stress is that planning, organizing [and staffing] set the stage for where we are going and when and how we intend to get there; then these plans, people, and resources are activated, led, motivated, and coordinated; and as our information system brings us performance data, the control element enables management to renew the elements by replanning, or reorganizing, or whatever has been indicated by our control system. Thus, management is a continuing process, not a neat set of discrete elements/functions that are performed without consideration of the other elements. ) B. Max Weber and Bureaucracy (To begin, ask the class what bureaucracy means. There is a high probability that this idea will be associated with rules, impersonality, inefficiency, and catch-22 situations. This opens the door for what Weber intended. ) 1. Webers Germany was characterized by cartels which limited competition; his interest in the capitalistic spirit (from Chapter 2) led him to ask if a market oriented society could operate large organizations on some rational, systematic basis? A good discussion point might be the quote from Weber about â€Å"rational capitalism† versus â€Å"greed. Is capitalism and its market system a â€Å"rational† way to allocate resources? 2. Bureaucracy as theory a. It was management by the office, not by person. b. It was an ideal, the pure form of organization but this did not mean that it was the most desirable. c. Weber is suggested as the founder of Organization Theory. 3. Authority Weber had three pure types: a. Rational legal b. Traditional c. Charismatic (Have your students describe each type. Then, ask if organizations can operate best on the rational-legal basis, as Weber argued. Why? Or, why not? ) 4. Elements of Bureaucracy Ask the students to review these and apply them to a university, business, or other organization. 5. Weber argued that bureaucracy was, technically, capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency. If so, why do we think of bureaucracy as undesirable? Chapter 11 Scientific Management in Theory and Practice Our purpose in this chapter is to examine the impact of scientific management on management education, on international management, and on other disciplines. Second, we see the spread of management ideas beyond the factory and the emergence of general management. The chapter is replete with names so suggestions will be made below where different emphases might be placed. ) A. The Study and Practice of Scientific Management 1. Education for Industrial Management (This is one area you may wish to summarize. The main points are: a. Early in the 20th century, the teaching of management in colleges focused on production management and was based on Frederick Taylors writings. b. Daniel Nelsons observation that scientific management gave credibility to the study of business. Business schools were considered by educators of that time (and maybe today) as too vocational. . Scientific Management Internationally a. The management revolution spread abroad as a product of the U. S. A. b. In France, industrialists tended to implement scientific management to increase productivity without following Taylors advice. Taylorisme became a dirty word for French workers. c. In Britain, note the differing opinions on scientific management. d. In Poland, Adamieckis harmonogram was similar to PERT. e. In the U. S. S. R. (which at the time was the Soviet Union rather than as it stands now): (1)Lenin advocated Taylorism, but little came of this in practice. 2)Gilbreths ideas on motion study probably had more influence than Taylors ideas. (3)Taylors idea of a mental revolution ran counter to the Bolshevik distrust of capitalism. (4)Walter Polakov was successful in getting the U. S. S. R. to use Gantt Charts for their five year plans. f. In Japan, Taylors ideas gained widespread acceptance. The Japanese liked the idea of harmony, cooperation, and mutual interest. What modern scholars call Japanese style management had its roots in the work of Taylor. 3. Industrial Practice (Beau coup names here so select as you see fit. Briefly: a. The Hoxie study highlighted the difference between the notions of scientific management and how well they were implemented. Note, however, that the Hoxie report was a pro-union document and biased toward labor unions. Also, see John Frey’s later doubts about Hoxie himself. Also noteworthy are John R. Commons’ comments about why the Hoxie report was not included in the final report of the Industrial Relations Commission. b. Studies by C. B. Thompson and Daniel Nelson provide more accurate assessments of scientific management. c. It is worth emphasizing that Nelson concluded that scientific management had a strong positive correlation with industrial efficiency. Also, scientific management was associated with growth not stagnation in most industries. d. Scientific management was associated with batch shop production and labor intensive operations. But in capital intensive industries, or automobile assembly lines, scientific management was less useful. e. Evidence from the U. S. Bureau of Census disputes the notion that scientific management â€Å"de-skilled labor. † Rather, the number of skilled and unskilled workers was increasing during this period. Scientific management has been criticized for de-skilling jobs and your author and the employment data from this period suggests this has been perpetuated as an untruth. B. Emerging General Management 1. Scientific management and other disciplines (for your selection): a. Public administration b. Marketing c. Accounting and standard costing d. The crossover chart as a forerunner of break-even point. e. Flexible budgeting. f. J. O. McKinsey is an unsung pioneer for the business policy/strategy field. His influence on Bill Newman will be discussed later. 2. Early organization theory (very useful if this is an emphasis in your class): A brief summary of some previous notions of organization, line-staff, organization charts, etc. b. Russell Robb is the focal point of this section. His ideas involved: (1)Organizations differed as to goals sought as well as means to those goals. (2)These organizational differences suggested there was no one best way to organize. 3. DuPont and General Motors (I place more emphasis here because of the very innovative things that were happening during that period at DuPont and G. M. ) a. Psychological tests for personnel selection. b. Donaldson Brown and Return on Investment (ROI) as R = T x P. This became the basis of the DuPont Chart system that is still in use. c. William C. Durant is an interesting study, but briefly examined here. He was great at building a firm, but not noted as an outstanding manager. d. Alfred P. Sloan, Jr. and the creation of centralized policy, control, and review while decentralizing administration and operations. e. The use, by both G. M. and DuPont, of the multidivisional structure. Organized around product divisions, these divisions could be decentralized for operations and performance could be measured by ROI (when we speak of the M-form organization, here are its origins). 4. Business Policy and Philosophy (again, numerous ideas to consider): a. Arch W. Shaw and the beginning of a business policy course. b. The problem or case method of instruction borrowed from legal education. c. A. H. Church and his distinction between what we would call policy formulation and implementation. d. Oliver Sheldon and a philosophy of management built on the efficiency values of scientific management with the ethics of service to the community. Chapter 12 Scientific Management in Retrospect This chapter examines the scientific management era in light of its economic, technological, social, and political environment. The student should see how the ideas of managing shaped and were shaped by changing environmental factors. A. The Economic Environment 1. The U. S. A. was in transition from an agrarian to an industrial nation. In this period of growth, scientific management provided a means whereby a better utilization of resources could occur. 2. The U. S. work force was very diverse with immigrants from many lands. See the data for the Nation and the example of workers at Ford Motor. 3. Compare Taylor’s â€Å"mental revolution† with the â€Å"mutual gains strategy† of today. 4. The U. S. orker prospered, both in wages, real wages (purchasing power), and reduced hours of work. (See the data for 1865-1890 and 1890-1921. ) 5. More employees were in management with the addition of staff specialists. This growth in the managerial hierarchy made it more critical to plan, organize, etc. 6. Alfred Chandlers rationalization of resource utilization describes well the needs of industry during this era. The ideas of the scientific management pioneers fitted these needs. 7. Industrial efficiency was increasing, partially due to scientific management (see the data on productivity). B. Technology and New Horizons . A substantial number of today’s Fortune 500 companies started during this period. 2. New manufacturing processes in steel and metal-working. 3. Transportation advances by automobiles, aircraft, canal and bridge construction. 4. Emerging energy sources in petroleum and electricity. 5. Assembly line developments at Ford Motor. 6. Office work was reshaped by the mimeograph for copying, the typewriter, carbon paper, Hollerith’s punch card, and visual means of data presentation such as Gantt Charts. C. The Social Environment 1. Horatio Alger, Jr. characterized the success ethic of U. S. enterprise. 2. Scientific management ideas were consonant with the social values of self-directing, high need for achievement, individuals. 3. Change came as the Western frontier closed; Bill Scott called this the collision effect, which would lead to a transition period of individualism being replaced by a social ethic (coming in Part Three). 4. The Social Gospel described briefly here at the risk of repeating previous material. C. The Political Environment 1. The political articulation of the Social Gospel was the Populist-Progressive Movement. 2. Scientific management appealed to the Progressives, especially Morris Cooke. An increasing regulation of business during this time overcame the inadequacies of the earlier Sherman Act. 4. Check the tax rates they are a good way to capture a feeling for this era of relatively limited government. Part Three The Social Person Era Chapter 13 The Hawthorne Studies The purpose of this chapter is to describe the studies at the Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric, then a subsidiary of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. The social person was not invented by these studies, but was elevated and brought to wider recognition by those who interpreted the results. The interesting thing about these studies is how they have been publicized, misinterpreted, praised, and criticized over these many years since the event. Each of us will bring some of our views in when teaching this chapter and it is interesting to find that the issues of Hawthorne have not been resolved but continue to generate articles and presentations. I have used the microfilm records of these studies and I am indebted to Chuck Wrege, Ron Greenwood, and Al Bolton for their seminal work. A. The Studies Begin 1. The original research issue was the effect of workplace illumination on worker productivity. Those who came initially to Hawthorne were electrical engineers from MIT. a. After establishing performance baselines in three departments, the researchers varied the level of illumination. Their conclusion: illumination appeared to have no influence on output. b. Another attempt was made with a control group and a variable group, placed in separate buildings. Again: in this case output went up in both groups. c. The illumination research was abandoned in 1927, but one of the researchers, Charles E. Snow, concluded there were too many variables and the psychology of the human individual could have been the most important one. The Relay Assembly Test Room a. The studies could have been trashed at this point, but Homer Hibarger and George Pennock pushed for further study. Pennock had an excellent insight: supervision was a better explanation. b. The participants were volunteers, knew the objectives of the study, and were observed for a short period in their regular department prior to going to a separate room with their observer. You may wish to indicate to your students that two of the original participants were replaced about 8 months into the experiment. This became an issue which is discussed in Chapter 17. A number of changes were introduced: (1)The incentive payment plan was changed such that the relay assembly group was rewarded on their output rather than on the output of the larger relay assembly department. Note that the participants were told that they could make more money under this arrangement this point will come into play later when various interpretations are made of why output increased. (2)Rest periods were introduced. (3)After 8 months, two operators quit and two new ones selected. (4)Work-day and work-week changes. (5)Lunch and refreshments were provided by the company. . Over a year after the studies began, all of these privileges, except the small group payment plan, were removed. While output varied, the overall trend was increased output. 3. Clair Turner and an early interpretation of the rise in output: a. The small group resulting in more esprit de corps. b. The style of supervision: the participants’ remarks are worth noting. c. Increased earnings: average wages went from $16 to $28-50 per week while in the test room. d. The novelty of the experiment. c. The attention given to the operators by others. 4. A second relay assembly group was formed by Clair Turner in an effort to test the pay for performance effects. Average earnings per week had increased significantly. a. The second relay group was formed and taken from the large group payment plan to the small group one. Initially, output went up and then leveled off. Note that this study lasted only 9 weeks. Then, this group was returned to the original payment plan, output dropped (and that was the end of the second group). b. Mica splitters had always been on individual pay incentives and this group was studied for 14 months. In this group, average hourly output went up during this period. Turner concluded that pay incentives were one factor, but not the only one, although it was of appreciable importance. (Chapter 17 provides a critique of the studies but my preference is to present and discuss Chapter 13 without reference to the criticisms. When we get to Chapter 17, we discuss the various interpretations of the studies and tie it all together. Other instructors may choose to tie 13 and 17 together in the discussion. The outcome should be the same. ) 5. The Interviewing Program a. Snow and Hibarger started asking the workers directed questions about their feelings. b. Elton Mayo made a contribution by changing the interviewing program to a nondirective approach. He felt that supervisors need to listen more. c. With the nondirective approach the length of the interviews and the information gathered increased: (1)There appeared to be a cathartic effect. After a worker complained, follow-up interviews revealed that the complaint was gone. The workers felt better even though no change in conditions had occurred. (2)Fact and sentiment had to be separated. (3)Two levels of complaints (a)Manifest, i. e. what the employee said. (b)Latent, the psychological content of the complaint. 4)Complaints were symptoms to be explored. (5)Pessimistic reveries (Mayos phrase) could be reduced if supervisors were concerned and listened to their employees. Thus, according to Mayo, pessimistic reveries would be negative attitudes held by employees that could interfere with their performance. 6. The Bank Wiring Room a. Concerned observation, but not intervention, with male workers assembling switches for central office switchboards. Note the supervisors’ objections before the study began. b. Restriction of output was a surprising finding even though this practice had been described by others. c. Workers had established an output norm that was lower than managements standard or the bogey. d. In the informal organization, there were two cliques, each having norms about appropriate in-group behavior, such as the practice of binging. e. Researchers found that the work groups: (1)Deliberately restricted output (2)Smoothed out production (3)Developed intragroup disciplinary methods. f. Some workers were isolates, not in a clique, because of various factors. g. Rules for clique membership: (1)Working too fast, a rate buster. (2)Working too slowly, a rate chiseler. (3)Do not squeal on a member of your group. 4)Do not act officious or be socially distant. h. Factory as a social organization; work groups served to protect the workers within their group, and to protect the group from outsiders. The workers viewed: (1)Technologists and managers as following a logic of efficiency which interfered with group activities. (2)Workers were apprehensive of authority and followed a logic of sentiments which reflected their feelings and attitudes toward outsiders. B. Human Relations, Leadership, and Motivation 1. The Hawthorne effect: part of the research and human relations folklore for years. Allegedly, the findings were biased because the experimenters became personally involved in the social-work situation. a. Theresa Layman, one of the participants, rebutted this; so did Don Chipman, one of the observer experimenters; and so did Clair Turner, one of the experimenters. b. The Hawthorne effect is widely referenced, but is a dubious explanation of the Hawthorne results. 2. Mayo felt â€Å"pessimistic reveries were one type of blockage which arose out of personal, social, and industrial problems and became manifest in apprehension of authority, restriction of output, etc. . Anomie, borrowed by Mayo from Emile Durkheim to describe the break-up of traditional society, leaving people without norms. 4. Leadership, in the view of Mayo and Roethlisberger, needed strengthening by social and human skills for the leader (note my feeling that Mayo and F. W. Taylor sought the same goal of collaboration and cooperation but differed in means). a. Influenced by Chester Barnard, Mayo co ncluded that authority had to be based on social skills in securing cooperation. b. Management needed to focus more on building group integrity and solidarity. c. First line supervisors were particularly important in good worker-manager relations. 5. Motivation in the human relations literature evolved and became more Mayo and Roethlisbergers advocacy than based on what happened at the Hawthorne plant. a. Early reports, such as Clair Turners report and Mark Putnams statement to Business Week, placed money as important. b. The test room participants stated they liked the fact they were able to make more money. c. Chuck Wrege cites a memo to Mayo in which he is told that economic and financial factors were of considerable importance. . As time passed, the Mayo-Roethlisberger theme shifted: (1)Example, Roethlisbergers memo that Mayo would be happy because of some evidence that physiological, not economic, factors were related to output. (2)More emphasis in later writings is placed on social belonging needs, being accepted by the group. (3)A later quote regarding discarding economic man. (Some of this discussion overlaps the critique in Chapter 1 7. You may find it to your liking to combine these differing views of what motivated the social person. ) Chapter 14 The Search for Organizational Integration This chapter focuses on two individuals, Mary Follett and Chester Barnard, both of whom are very important in the evolution of management thought. Follett was chronologically closer to the scientific management era, but intellectually a forerunner of understanding group processes. Barnard, on the other hand, influenced human relations thinking and continues to influence our understanding of organizations and management. A. Mary Parker Follett 1. Basis of her philosophy: a. Johann Fichte, Georg Hegel, and Gestalt psychologists. b. Early experiences led her to realize the need to rethink our ideas bout authority, leadership, and conflict resolution. 2. Conflict Resolution: She saw 4 ways a. Submission if in a conflict situation. b. Struggle, and someone wins and the other loses. c. Compromise, a solution she did not like, especially as it appeared in labor-management collective bargaining. d. Integration, finding a solution that did not involve compromise, submission, or struggle. My students are much more accustomed to bargaining or battle, and less at ease with trying to find a more creative solution. Folletts illustrations do not help our understanding of integration much either. The topic of conflict resolution does engender a lively class discussion if the students are prompted to think about labor-management relations, dating or marital relationships, or even international conflict. 3. Authority and Power a. Essential to integration would be rethinking authority and power. b. She advocated power-with and co-action to replace power-over and coercion. c. Depersonalize orders and follow the law of the situation. Ask your students if there is a similarity here with management by objectives which they may or may not yet be familiar with. d. Authority is based on knowledge and not the will of one person. I comment here that this sounds like F. W. Taylor and the functional foreman. The class may or may not agree. If not, this opens the door to a discussion of authority and influence. e. Power-with required circular response, disclosure and open discussion. f. Follett believed in employee representation plans (Chapter 9) because of cooperation and shared power. 4. Leadership a. Folletts notion of the role of the leader/manager was an extension of her ideas of integration and authority. b. Control could not be achieved without integrated efforts, that is, when interests were not reconciled. c. Control was based on facts, not people; and correlated, not imposed from above. d. Coordination facilitated control. e. Leadership, then, involved defining the purpose of the organi-zation and skills in coordinating and evoking the law of the situation. f. These leadership tasks were not based on the power of the leader, but a reciprocating influence of leaders and followers within the context of the situation. I find Follett fun to teach her ideas are unique and provoke discussion. She is often dismissed as too idealistic, out of touch in a tough world where decisions have to be made without time to implement her techniques. But, in a tough world can we make better decisions because people are involved and co-acting to achieve a common purpose? B. Chester Barnard 1. Cooperative Systems: a. Formal organizations as the kind of cooperation that is conscious, deliberate, and purposeful. b. Formal organizations helped: (1)Maintain an internal equilibrium. (2)Examine external forces to see if adjustments must be made. An open systems viewpoint. (3)Analyze the functions of executives. c. Organizations needed to be cooperative systems because people had choices and they could choose to contribute or not to contribute. d. The executive functions could modify actions and motives through influence and control. e. Effective-Efficient: individual and organizational goals might differ and Barnard expressed this as: (1)Effective, meet the goals of the organization. (2)Efficient, meeting individual motives, and only the individual could determine whether or not this was occurring. Students may find Barnards terms mean something different from previous definitions of effective and efficient. Mayo used logic of efficiency where Barnard meant effective. My advice to the class is to keep these definitions in mind only for Barnard. . The only measure of efficiency according to Barnard was the organizations capacity to survive. That is, to provide adequate inducements to satisfy individual motives to secure their cooperation. At this point, another question occurs: an organization must also be effective or it may not be able to be efficient. Rather than being dichotomous, are effective and efficient really co-acti ng? 2. Elements of formal organizations: Barnard defined a formal organization as a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons. The late Lyndall Urwick felt this definition was too broad, and quipped: under Barnards definition, a boy kissing a girl is also a formal organization. a. Willingness to cooperate, and this was to be facilitated by the offerings of objective and subjective incentives. Perhaps somewhat controversial is Barnards notion that this meant self-abnegation, surrender of control of personal conduct, and depersonalization of personal actions. Did this mean we lose our individuality? If so, then why did he stress the need to satisfy individual motives? b. Purpose, or objectives of the organization. Although individual and organizational motives were different, individuals could achieve their motives by working toward organizational purposes. This reminds me of Douglas McGregors Theory Y, which will be presented in Chapter 20. c. Communication, for which Barnard developed 3 principles: (1)Channels should be definitely known. (2)Objective authority (I interpret this to mean formal authority) requires a definite channel of communication. (3)Keep the line of communication short and direct. d. Informal organization, where Barnard also saw 3 universal elements: 1)Communication. (2)Maintenance of cohesiveness. (3)Maintenance of feelings of personal integrity and self-respect. It might be worthwhile to ask the class how Barnards notion of the informal organization compares with F. W. Taylors systematic soldiering and Elton Mayos illogical logic of sentiments. 3. Acceptance Theory of Authority a. Barnards definition of authority included the notion that a communication must be accepted by the organizational member. b. Authority did not reside in persons of authority, but in a members acceptance of authority. c. Individuals would consent to authority if four conditions were met: (1)They understood the communicated order. (2)They believed the order was consistent with the organizations purpose. (3)The order was compatible with their personal interests as a whole. (4)They were physically and mentally able to comply with the order. Depending on how much time you wish to spend on this topic, there are a number of implicit issues here regarding interpersonal communications, the clarity of the organizations purpose, and the morality/ethical possibil- ities regarding personal interests. d. Zone of indifference, Barnards phrase for explaining how an organization could function since members could accept or reject authority on almost any occasion. Individuals could be very indifferent, leading to a wider possibility of acceptance, or less indifferent. This depended on the individuals weighing the inducements, burdens, and sacrifices. In class, I may say: as your instructor, lets assume I have some a uthority in this class. How far can I go? Would you stand in your class seats if requested? Would you etc.? I find a fairly wide acceptance of reasonable requests, but for a promise of better grades the students become a lot more amenable to my suggestions. In some ways, this is scary. e. Authority of leadership, Barnards way of expressing the potentiality of assent created when people had respect for and confidence in their leaders. f. Authority still existed in the organizational hierarchy, in formal authority, but authority in the final analysis still rested with the organizational member. 4. The Functions of the Executive. Three, according to Barnard: a. Provide a system of communication. b. Promote securing personal efforts. c. Formulate and define organizational purpose. d. Decision making and â€Å"strategic factors. † Strategic factors was an idea that Barnard took from John R. Commons. e. In â€Å"logical† and â€Å"non-logical† decision making, Barnard reveals the importance of intuition, tacit knowledge, to go with logical decision making processes. 5. Moral leadership for Barnard involved executives having a high moral code, demonstrating it as an example, and seeking to create this morality in others. For discussion, this can lead you into recent examples of failures as well as successes of executives, financiers, and others in displaying their moral leadership. Chapter 15 People and Organizations My students refer to Chapters 15 and 16 as telephone book chapters, lots of names and some intellectual addresses where contributions were made. These are accurate assessments so I suggest that you tailor your assignments to fit your course objectives. In Chapter 15, I focus on Moreno, Lewin, Maslow, Scanlon, Lincoln, McCormick, Simon, and Whyte as well as the leadership studies at Michigan and Ohio State. For my purpose, these capsulize the research in group dynamics, changing behavior, job design, motivation, participation, leadership, decision making and socio-technical systems. A. People at Work: The Micro View I approach this as organizational behavior before it acquired that label. The bases of modern OB were being built during this era. 1. Eduard Lindeman a. Early study of group behavior in member interaction, participation, and attitudes. b. Origin of phrase participant-observer. c. Lindeman was a cohort of Mary Follett and they appear to have influenced each other. . Jacob Moreno a. Sociometry, trying to classify individuals into groups that were capable of harmonious relationships. b. Sociogram, mapping interpersonal preferences. Note the difference he found when preferences were for social vs. task mates. c. Psychodrama, a cathartic experience for an individual in a group setting. d. Sociodrama, the basis of role playing. e. Role reversal, taking the role of others and a us eful technique for working with culturally diverse groups. 3. Kurt Lewin a. Group dynamics and field theory. Gestalt notions for understanding individuals in groups. Note Moreno’s influence on Lewin. b. Quasi-stationary equilibrium. Groups never achieved a steady state but were continuously in a process of mutual adaptation. (This notion has led me to have numerous doubts about the findings of small group research projects. ) c. Leadership, perhaps an inappropriate label for a study of social climate in 10-11 year old boys. Lewin asked his counselors to role play democratic or authoritarian styles and found what he expected in the boys reactions. One counselor, however, misplayed his role and, rather than throwing the data out, Lewin called this laissez-faire. This style has persisted in the literature despite its inaccuracy. d. Changing behavior, Lewins finding that group participation facilitated the change process. His three step model is still a foundation for contemporary â€Å"action research† and organizational change: unfreezing through participation; moving to the new level; and freezing (reinforcing) the desired new behavi or. e. Lewins work became the basis for sensitivity training through his influence on Leland Bradford. B. Human and Industrial Relations 1. National Labor Relations Act of 1935 led to a new emphasis on collective bargaining and labor-management relations. 2. Interdisciplinary research such as the University of Chicago Committee on Human Relations. 3. Beginnings of industrial relations centers at various universities. 4. Increased interest in human relations training. C. Changing Assumptions about People at Work 1. Motivation, both Henry Murray and A. H. Maslow and the development of a need theory of motivation. a. Maslow and the hierarchy of human needs. b. Maslow’s â€Å"humanistic psychology† and the Third Force in psychology. . Joseph Scanlon, union official and later a colleague of Douglas McGregor at MIT. The Scanlon Plan: (1)A union-management productivity plan whereby groups of workers got bonuses for proposing savings in labor costs. (2)Group oriented. (3)Not profit sharing. d. James F. Lincoln, rewarding individual efforts based on skill ratings. (1)Wages and benefits were comparable to the Clevela nd area labor market. (2)In addition, bonuses were paid for performance based on quality and quantity of output as well as self-management (or, in contemporary terms, â€Å"empowerment†). 3)Bonuses were typically substantial until recent years. Have a class member check Lincoln Electric’s web site and/or Cleveland area newspapers for the latest on employee bonuses. 2. Job Enlargement, research in the 1940s by Walker and Guest indicated some possible improvements if jobs were designed to lengthen (broaden) the work cycle (you may want to stress that this concerned combining jobs rather than increasing job depth). 3. Participation, a power-equalization thesis of this period to play down the importance of the organizational hierarchy. 1)James Worthy, at Sears, Roebuck argued for flatter structures and decentralization. He also worked with the University of Chicagos Committee on Human Relations to study the impact of structure on employee morale. (2)William B. Given, Jr. , a bottom-up approach. (3)Charles P. McCormick, a plan for participation which is still operative in this tea, spice, and extract firm. Junior boards were created (multiple management) to improve communications, manager development, and coordination through participation. 4. Leadership a. T. W. Adorno and the F (for Fascist) scale. b. Rensis Likert and the University of Michigan studies of leadership orientations: (1)An employee orientation, stressing interpersonal relations. (2)A production orientation, focus on producing. (3)An employee orientation, coupled with more general supervision, led to higher productivity, better morale, lower turnover, greater group cohesiveness, and less employee anxiety. c. The leadership studies at Ohio State University, largely led by Ralph Stogdill and Carroll Shartle, also found a two dimensional orientation. (1)Initiating structure, acting to further the work objectives. 2)Consideration, emphasizing followers needs and interpersonal relations. d. Despite differing terminology, leadership was viewed by each as a two-by-two matrix of leader behaviors in which being people-oriented was not mutually exclusive of a production orientation. D. People at Work: The Macro View 1. William Foote Whytes study of restaurants. a. Status in the social system ran counter to the work flow and who initiated work for others in the technical system. b. Whytes work was key to the idea of socio-technical systems. c. Whyte is noted for â€Å"participatory action research. † 2. E. Edward] Wight Bakke, the interactions of the formal and informal systems; the bonds of organization; and the fusion process involving organizational position and personal views of standing or status. 3. Tavistock Institute and the work of Elliott Jacques. 4. Pioneering study of Trist and Bamforth on the impact of technology on The social system. 5. Herbert A. Simon, greatly influenced in his early work by Chester Barnard, was interested in how choices (decisions) were made: a. Limits that â€Å"bound the area of rationality made it difficult to achieve the best possible decision. Note Simon’s later use of the term â€Å"bounded rationality. b. Satisficing or good enough decisions were a result of the decision makers limited rationality. c. Composite decisions would be better because of th e limits on one persons capability to achieve better solutions; participation by different groups would be an improvement. d. With James March, Simon authored the influential book Organizations. They viewed organizations as complex networks of decision processes that influence human choices. 6. George C. Homans was influenced by the writings of Vilfredo Pareto through the seminars of L. J. Henderson. Another study of the relationships created when work and social systems interact. Various dimensions were found in: a. Activities, formal or informal. b. Interactions, prescribed or emergent. c. Sentiments, the elusive nature of feelings. Chapter 16 Organizations and People Again, one of those chapters with numerous names. The broad intent of the chapter is to prepare the foundation for a later discussion of management and organization theory. In contrast with Chapter 15, the focus is on formal organization, re

Bussiness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Bussiness - Essay Example According to the China National Tourism Office (2007b), statistics show that China has one of the biggest inbound markets in Asia constituting almost 34 % of theregion's total tourist arrivals. Over the next decade, China will become the second largest travel and tourism industry inthe world, after the United States. The China tourism sector is expected to further improve as it continues to receive renewed support with relaxation of government regulation (CNTOa, 2007). China's emerging market is now seeing rapid developments as major international hotel companies are pushing to establish strong footholds in the region. Many top of the line hotel chains are already being constructed in preparation for the Beijing Olympics in 2008. (Zhang et al, 2005). Major foreign investments are pouring in every sector aside from tourism contributing to higher government revenues that provides further initiative and funds to develop and promote the rich cultural heritage of the country. China can now afford to set and meet higher standards in accommodation and other support systems. Indeed, it has developed from offering substandard services to one that is truly remarkable. The aim of this paper is to analyze the developments in hospitality industry in China... I will also be providing details on the projects and initiatives, how they were implemented, who implemented them and provide a report on the current status of the project whenever possible. 2.0 On the Road to Success: China's Initiatives for the Hospitality Industry 2.1 10th Five-Year Plan Tourism Development Program The year 2000 saw a complete fulfillment of drawing up the Tourism Development Program for the 10th Five-Year Plan. Based on the work done in 1999, two forums on mapping out the Tourism Development Program for the 10th Five-Year Plan were respectively held in Nanjing and Harbin between January and February in 2000. The Nanjing Forum was attended by representatives from tourist departments in southeast China, while the Harbin Forum was attended by representatives from North China. By October 2000, the "China Tourism Development Program for the 10th Five-Year Plan and the Program Outline by the Years 2015 and 2020" had been already worked out. It reviews the achievements made in tourism industry and experiences gained in its development during the Ninth Five-Year Plan period, outlines the tourist development targets and major projects during the 10th Five-Year Plan, and systematically puts forward important strategic ideologies for realizing the grand blueprint. It is program of action which will guide China's tourism industry to make bigger development in the new century. (Wen and Tisdell, 2001) 2.2 Professional Management in Tourism Planning In line with the renewed efforts for the development of the hospitality sector, more efforts were made to strengthen professional management of tourism planning, accelerate the process of legislation construction in tourism planning, and give more technological and policy guidance on local tourism

Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 17

Case study - Essay Example Globalization in the film industry can be approached from four main categories as discussed by Lorenzen (2008). He enumerates these approaches as being globalization of involvement in film-making, film consumption, film production and organization of film making. Globalization involvement in film-making is characterized by a rapid growth in the number of feature films that hit the market, either for TV, cinema or exhibition. For instance, Lorenzen observes that India and China have considerably experienced steady growth in the film industry, a situation backed by their respective growth in purchasing power and investment in the industry. The rise of global consumer taste the world over characterizes globalization in consumption. Lorenzen notes that apart from continuous expansion of the global market, the ease with which producers can reach the prospective market has also improved. The advantage that comes with this phenomenon is that products can be released simultaneously to global audiences on a good number of national markets. This consumption globalization is immensely boosted by such quick distribution and exhibition platforms as internet, Satellite TV and DVDs. India and Japan have been noted to be more aggressive in adopting new technological distribution means compared to Hollywood. Cross-border co-production of films is what marks production globalization. Even though this practice has been around for some time, it has recently witnessed a great surge, with most films from US, Canada, Asia, and Europe involving cross-border production. India, due to is conservative nature, is yet adopt cross-border co-production, hence the relatively low external market share for its films. The final aspect of globalization is global organization, characterized by the advent of global corporations. With the onset of internalization, Lorenzen observes that most Hollywood

Opertaing a small rural-based business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Opertaing a small rural-based business - Essay Example (Landstorm, pp. 13-14, 2005) In particular, SMEs play a significant role in the contribution to rural economy. Since few years, sector of rural-based tourism has developed and grown progressively in the country. Certain limits related to the annual turnover or the number of employees have been defined and described in every country, in order to identify the definition the small and medium enterprises. However, every country has its economy, and thus, definition of the abovementioned term has been provided by various trade organizations according to their terms and conditions. In this regard, these enterprises have been abbreviated by SME by some of the major trade organizations, as well as, unions, such as, the World Trade Organization, the World Bank, and the European Union. For instance, a limit of five hundred employees was put on the German companies according to their traditional definition. On the other hand, a limit of only hundred employees was the standard for becoming SME in the Belgium. (Hall, pp. 49-50, 1997) In this paper, we will try to discuss different steps that can be taken to establish and operate small rural-based business in particularly, tourism sector of the United Kingdom. Every business confronts different threats and weaknesses during various business processes; however, establishment of a business brings new opportunities and strengths that will be discussed in this paper as well. The importance of the small business sector in tourism sector of the country will be highlighted during this paper, and few implications will be provided during the study. In the United Kingdom, magnitude of the annual balance sheet, annual turnover, and number of employees are considered during the evaluation of a small business firm statistically. In detail, small business firms have been categorized according to their volume. For instance,

Mastering Time Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mastering Time Management - Essay Example Successfully identifying the different tasks is one half of the time management battle. Managing these priorities with disciplined follow through is the other half. In order to be successful in today's world, the student, business executive, housewife or teacher must be able to identify and follow through with disciplined tenacity. In their breakthrough time management book The One Minute Manager, Johnson and Spencer developed the following four quadrant graph which can be used by any person seeking to develop a greater control over their time usage. The graph is based on breaking down tasks into 4 categories, and identifying their importance relative to your this category. Tasks which are not urgent or important can swallow hours of time, like a check written against a zero balance bank account, return nothing. Quadrant 2 tasks are not important, but urgent none the less. Sometime answering the phone or email can seem like an urgent matter. However, even these simple tasks can steal time from more important issues. Quadrant 3 and 4 are the most important tasks which cross your desk every day. Left unattended, these items typically are those which grow into major issues, or 'forest fires' which will require significant amounts of time and energy to subdue if not handled when they are first identified. Quadrant 4 tasks are already small fires which need immediate attention. Quadrant 3 contains those items which will become forest fires if not managed immediately. The key to successful time management is identifying first and foremost the quadrant 3 tasks and priorities. According to the authors, these issues will account for 80% of a person's success or failure in live. Quadrant 3 issues can be managed easily with maximum return on the time spent if they are successfully addresses while in quadrant 3. If these tasks grow to be both urgent and important, they will likely move to control the person, rather than the person controlling them. For example, paying government taxes each year is an important, but not urgent matter. However, if a person does not pay taxed or file returns for a number of years, and the matter comes to the attention of the IRS, the person no longer is in control of the process. The government agency will dictate how, and when, and how much will be paid. The agency will control the person rather than the person controlling the simple task of paying taxes little by little. The second half of effective time management is disciplined follow through. A person can be excellent on determining the priorities of their tasks. However, if he or she does not follow through, and effectively complete the tasks, he or she may as well live with no tasks or to do lists at all. Any person, regardless of talent, intelligence, or income level will be no more effective than his or her willingness to follow through, and do the work. The world is full of unemployed geniuses. Anyone can have great ideas, and bask their 'fifteen minutes of fame' only to disappear into oblivion. The person who consistently performs his or her prioritized tasks will eventually

Summarize Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 8

Summarize - Essay Example The researcher must follow the content pattern in every chapter. Nevertheless, your chair might approve another pattern in a manner, which captures the reader. General-to-specific might be adequate through giving results initially and then proof afterwards, but the researcher does not have to show the details discussed in an earlier chapter. Discussing the premise of a research is the most essential section in the final chapter. Looking at the findings offers a fast answer to the study question, which aims at unearthing the significance of the study rather than the details. Tentative answers to research questions offer an answer in determining the content of the chapter. Finally, the researcher must a proper comprehension of the software utilized in analyzing data like Excel spreadsheets or Word documents. Software is significant in data analysis, as well as presentation. The final paper must be a winning dissertation. It must tackle all research problems, as well as offer recommendations for future study areas. A good or perfect research builds on present knowledge to develop innovative

Degradation of Green Tea Catechins in Tea Drinks Assignment

Degradation of Green Tea Catechins in Tea Drinks - Assignment Example This study is significant because it studies the effect of processing conditions on GTC content. It is important to conserve the GTC content of tea during processing to retain its beneficial effects. Results of the study reveal that the GTC content of processed tea is significantly low compared to traditionally prepared tea. While a cup of traditionally brewed tea contains 400-500 mg of GTC, processed tea contains only 3-60 mg GTC. GTC is stable at room temperature. About 10-15%, GTC is lost when tea is heated up to 98 ?C for 15-30 minutes, with additional 5% loss on prolonged heating. Autoclaving at 120 ?C for 20 minutes, which is yet another step during processing, leads to a loss of 23% GTC. This loss is directly proportional to the pH of the medium. Furthermore, about 80% of the GTC content is degraded in a buffer medium of pH 6. The stability and shelf life of GTC is also found to be dependent on pH content in the absence of other ingredients. Half of the GTC content is lost wit hin 3 months at a pH below 4.5. Sucrose has no effect on the stability of GTC while citric acid leads to a faster degradation. Ascorbic acid has a protective effect in the first month after which it accelerates the degradation. In addition, the results also reveal that at high temperatures, EGCG undergoes epimerization to form GCG. This explains the contrasting GCG content between traditionally prepared tea and processed tea, wherein, the GCG content is higher by 45% in processed tea. Overall, it can be concluded that GTC degrades easily at high temperature and pH, and that the stability of GTC depends on the presence of other ingredients. Further studies that focus on the effect of each ingredient present in processed tea on the stability and speed of degradation of GTC are required. II. Coffee and Green Tea as a Large Source of Antioxidant Polyphenols in the Japanese Population (Fukushima et al 1253-1259) The objective of this study was to evaluate the total consumption of polyphe nols by Japanese people. Polyphenols are well known for their antioxidant activity and beverages are a major source of polyphenols in Japan. The findings of this study suggest that an individual per day consumes an average of 853 mg of polyphenols. The largest source of polyphenols in the Japanese population is coffee, which provides 200 ml of polyphenols in every 100 mL. The average polyphenol consumption through coffee is found to be 426 mg/day. The second largest source of polyphenol is Green tea, which contributes up to 292 mg polyphenols/day. Thus, coffee and green teas constitute up to 70% of the total beverage consumption and are the largest sources of polyphenols. Among fruits and vegetables, satsuma oranges and onions are the most consumed and provided 9 and 4 mg of polyphenols, respectively, per day. Cacao mass (chocolate) and black pepper contribute about 0.8 g and 0.2 g polyphenols per day. Measurement of the antioxidant activities correlates well with the total polyphen ol content of all the tested consumables, suggesting that the in vitro antioxidant activities are proportional to the total polyphenol quantities. Future studies will have to examine whether in vivo antioxidant properties of these polyphenols correlate well with those observed in vitro. III. Content of Potentially Anticarcinogenic Flavonoids of Tea Infusions, Wines, and Fruit Juices (Hertog, Hollman, and Putte 1242-1246) This study attempted to evaluate the concentrations of various anti-carcinogenic flavonoids in beverages such as tea, wines and fruit juices. The study found

Mastering Time Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mastering Time Management - Essay Example Successfully identifying the different tasks is one half of the time management battle. Managing these priorities with disciplined follow through is the other half. In order to be successful in today's world, the student, business executive, housewife or teacher must be able to identify and follow through with disciplined tenacity. In their breakthrough time management book The One Minute Manager, Johnson and Spencer developed the following four quadrant graph which can be used by any person seeking to develop a greater control over their time usage. The graph is based on breaking down tasks into 4 categories, and identifying their importance relative to your this category. Tasks which are not urgent or important can swallow hours of time, like a check written against a zero balance bank account, return nothing. Quadrant 2 tasks are not important, but urgent none the less. Sometime answering the phone or email can seem like an urgent matter. However, even these simple tasks can steal time from more important issues. Quadrant 3 and 4 are the most important tasks which cross your desk every day. Left unattended, these items typically are those which grow into major issues, or 'forest fires' which will require significant amounts of time and energy to subdue if not handled when they are first identified. Quadrant 4 tasks are already small fires which need immediate attention. Quadrant 3 contains those items which will become forest fires if not managed immediately. The key to successful time management is identifying first and foremost the quadrant 3 tasks and priorities. According to the authors, these issues will account for 80% of a person's success or failure in live. Quadrant 3 issues can be managed easily with maximum return on the time spent if they are successfully addresses while in quadrant 3. If these tasks grow to be both urgent and important, they will likely move to control the person, rather than the person controlling them. For example, paying government taxes each year is an important, but not urgent matter. However, if a person does not pay taxed or file returns for a number of years, and the matter comes to the attention of the IRS, the person no longer is in control of the process. The government agency will dictate how, and when, and how much will be paid. The agency will control the person rather than the person controlling the simple task of paying taxes little by little. The second half of effective time management is disciplined follow through. A person can be excellent on determining the priorities of their tasks. However, if he or she does not follow through, and effectively complete the tasks, he or she may as well live with no tasks or to do lists at all. Any person, regardless of talent, intelligence, or income level will be no more effective than his or her willingness to follow through, and do the work. The world is full of unemployed geniuses. Anyone can have great ideas, and bask their 'fifteen minutes of fame' only to disappear into oblivion. The person who consistently performs his or her prioritized tasks will eventually

Degradation of Green Tea Catechins in Tea Drinks Assignment

Degradation of Green Tea Catechins in Tea Drinks - Assignment Example This study is significant because it studies the effect of processing conditions on GTC content. It is important to conserve the GTC content of tea during processing to retain its beneficial effects. Results of the study reveal that the GTC content of processed tea is significantly low compared to traditionally prepared tea. While a cup of traditionally brewed tea contains 400-500 mg of GTC, processed tea contains only 3-60 mg GTC. GTC is stable at room temperature. About 10-15%, GTC is lost when tea is heated up to 98 ?C for 15-30 minutes, with additional 5% loss on prolonged heating. Autoclaving at 120 ?C for 20 minutes, which is yet another step during processing, leads to a loss of 23% GTC. This loss is directly proportional to the pH of the medium. Furthermore, about 80% of the GTC content is degraded in a buffer medium of pH 6. The stability and shelf life of GTC is also found to be dependent on pH content in the absence of other ingredients. Half of the GTC content is lost wit hin 3 months at a pH below 4.5. Sucrose has no effect on the stability of GTC while citric acid leads to a faster degradation. Ascorbic acid has a protective effect in the first month after which it accelerates the degradation. In addition, the results also reveal that at high temperatures, EGCG undergoes epimerization to form GCG. This explains the contrasting GCG content between traditionally prepared tea and processed tea, wherein, the GCG content is higher by 45% in processed tea. Overall, it can be concluded that GTC degrades easily at high temperature and pH, and that the stability of GTC depends on the presence of other ingredients. Further studies that focus on the effect of each ingredient present in processed tea on the stability and speed of degradation of GTC are required. II. Coffee and Green Tea as a Large Source of Antioxidant Polyphenols in the Japanese Population (Fukushima et al 1253-1259) The objective of this study was to evaluate the total consumption of polyphe nols by Japanese people. Polyphenols are well known for their antioxidant activity and beverages are a major source of polyphenols in Japan. The findings of this study suggest that an individual per day consumes an average of 853 mg of polyphenols. The largest source of polyphenols in the Japanese population is coffee, which provides 200 ml of polyphenols in every 100 mL. The average polyphenol consumption through coffee is found to be 426 mg/day. The second largest source of polyphenol is Green tea, which contributes up to 292 mg polyphenols/day. Thus, coffee and green teas constitute up to 70% of the total beverage consumption and are the largest sources of polyphenols. Among fruits and vegetables, satsuma oranges and onions are the most consumed and provided 9 and 4 mg of polyphenols, respectively, per day. Cacao mass (chocolate) and black pepper contribute about 0.8 g and 0.2 g polyphenols per day. Measurement of the antioxidant activities correlates well with the total polyphen ol content of all the tested consumables, suggesting that the in vitro antioxidant activities are proportional to the total polyphenol quantities. Future studies will have to examine whether in vivo antioxidant properties of these polyphenols correlate well with those observed in vitro. III. Content of Potentially Anticarcinogenic Flavonoids of Tea Infusions, Wines, and Fruit Juices (Hertog, Hollman, and Putte 1242-1246) This study attempted to evaluate the concentrations of various anti-carcinogenic flavonoids in beverages such as tea, wines and fruit juices. The study found

Political philosophy Essay Example for Free

Political philosophy Essay Thomas Hobbes was born in Wiltshire, England on 5 April 1588 | birth_place = some sources say Malmesbury[2]). Born prematurely on April 5, 1588, when his mother heard of the coming invasion of the Spanish Armada, Thomas Hobbes later reported that my mother gave birth to twins: myself and fear. [3] His childhood is almost a complete blank, and his mothers name is unknown. [4] His father, also named Thomas, was the vicar of Charlton and Westport. Thomas Sr. abandoned his three children to the care of an older brother, Thomas juniors uncle Francis, when he was forced to flee to London after being involved in a fight with a clergyman outside his own church. Hobbes was educated at Westport church from the age of four, passed to the Malmesbury school and then to a private school kept by a young man named Robert Latimer, a graduate of the University of Oxford. Hobbes was a good pupil, and around 1603 he went up to Magdalen Hall, which is most closely related to Hertford College, Oxford. [5][6][7][8] The principal John Wilkinson was a Puritan, and he had some influence on Hobbes. At university, Hobbes appears to have followed his own curriculum; he was little attracted by the scholastic learning. He did not complete his B. A. degree until 1608, but he was recommended by Sir James Hussey, his master at Magdalen, as tutor to William, the son of William Cavendish, Baron of Hardwick (and later Earl of Devonshire), and began a life-long connection with that family. [9] Hobbes became a companion to the younger William and they both took part in a grand tour in 1610. Hobbes was exposed to European scientific and critical methods during the tour in contrast to the scholastic philosophy which he had learned in Oxford. His scholarly efforts at the time were aimed at a careful study of classic Greek and Latin authors, the outcome of which was, in 1628, his great translation of Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian War, the first translation of that work into English from a Greek manuscript. Although he associated with literary figures like Ben Jonson and thinkers such as Francis Bacon, he did not extend his efforts into philosophy until after 1629. His employer Cavendish, then the Earl of Devonshire, died of the plague in June 1628. The widowed countess dismissed Hobbes but he soon found work, again as a tutor, this time to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton. This task, chiefly spent in Paris, ended in 1631 when he again found work with the Cavendish family, tutoring the son of his previous pupil. Over the next seven years as well as tutoring he expanded his own knowledge of philosophy, awakening in him curiosity over key philosophic debates. He visited Florence in 1636 and later was a regular debater in philosophic groups in Paris, held together by Marin Mersenne. From 1637 he considered himself a philosopher and scholar. In Paris Hobbess first area of study was an interest in the physical doctrine of motion and physical momentum. Despite his interest in this phenomenon, he disdained experimental work as in physics. He went on to conceive the system of thought to the elaboration of which he would devote his life. His scheme was first to work out, in a separate treatise, a systematic doctrine of body, showing how physical phenomena were universally explicable in terms of motion, at least as motion or mechanical action was then understood. He then singled out Man from the realm of Nature and plants. Then, in another treatise, he showed what specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the peculiar phenomena of sensation, knowledge, affections and passions whereby Man came into relation with Man. Finally he considered, in his crowning treatise, how Men were moved to enter into society, and argued how this must be regulated if Men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery. Thus he proposed to unite the separate phenomena of Body, Man, and the State. Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country riven with discontent which disrupted him from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. However, by the end of the Short Parliament in 1640, he had written a short treatise called The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic. It was not published and only circulated among his acquaintances in manuscript form. A pirated version, however, was published about ten years later. Although it seems that much of The Elements of Law was composed before the sitting of the Short Parliament, there are polemical pieces of the work that clearly mark the influences of the rising political crisis. Nevertheless, many (though not all) elements of Hobbess political thought were unchanged between The Elements of Law and Leviathan, which demonstrates that the events of the English Civil War had little effect on his contractarian methodology. It should be noted, however, that the arguments in Leviathan were modified from The Elements of Law when it came to the necessity of consent in creating political obligation. Namely, Hobbes wrote in The Elements of Law that Patrimonial kingdoms were not necessarily formed by the consent of the governed, while in Leviathan he argued that they were. This was perhaps a reflection either of Hobbess thoughts concerning the engagement controversy or of his reaction to treatises published by Patriarchalists, such as Sir Robert Filmer, between 1640 and 1651. When in November 1640 the Long Parliament succeeded the Short, Hobbes felt he was a marked man by the circulation of his treatise and fled to Paris. He did not return for eleven years. In Paris he rejoined the coterie about Mersenne, and wrote a critique of the Meditations on First Philosophy of Descartes, which was printed as third among the sets of Objections appended, with Replies from Descartes in 1641. A different set of remarks on other works by Descartes succeeded only in ending all correspondence between the two. Hobbes also extended his own works somewhat, working on the third section, De Cive, which was finished in November 1641. Although it was initially only circulated privately, it was well received, and included lines of argumentation to be repeated a decade later in the Leviathan. He then returned to hard work on the first two sections of his work and published little except for a short treatise on optics (Tractatus opticus) included in the collection of scientific tracts published by Mersenne as Cogitata physico-mathematica in 1644. He built a good reputation in philosophic circles and in 1645 was chosen with Descartes, Gilles de Roberval and others, to referee the controversy between John Pell and Longomontanus over the problem of squaring the circle. The Civil War in England The English Civil War broke out in 1642, and when the Royalist cause began to decline in the middle of 1644 there was an exodus of the kings supporters to Europe. Many came to Paris and were known to Hobbes. This revitalised Hobbess political interests and the De Cive was republished and more widely distributed. The printing began in 1646 by Samuel de Sorbiere through the Elsevier press at Amsterdam with a new preface and some new notes in reply to objections. In 1647, Hobbes was engaged as mathematical instructor to the young Charles, Prince of Wales,[10] who had come over from Jersey around July. This engagement lasted until 1648 when Charles went to Holland. The company of the exiled royalists led Hobbes to produce an English book to set forth his theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis resulting from the war. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes, might be regarded as a great artificial man or monster (Leviathan), composed of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation under pressure of human needs to its dissolution through civil strife proceeding from human passions. The work was closed with a general Review and Conclusion, in direct response to the war which raised the question of the subjects right to change allegiance when a former sovereigns power to protect was irrecoverably gone. Also he criticized religious doctrines on rationalistic grounds in the Commonwealth. Frontispiece from De Cive (1642) During the years of the composition of Leviathan he remained in or near Paris. In 1647 Hobbes was overtaken by a serious illness which disabled him for six months. On recovering from this near fatal disorder, he resumed his literary task, and carried it steadily forward to completion by the year 1650. Meanwhile, a translation of De Cive was being produced; there has been much scholarly disagreement over whether Hobbes translated the work himself or not. In 1650, a pirated edition of The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic was published. It was divided into two separate small volumes (Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policie and De corpore politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politick). In 1651 the translation of De Cive was published under the title of Philosophicall Rudiments concerning Government and Society. Meanwhile, the printing of the greater work was proceeding, and finally it appeared about the middle of 1651, under the title of Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common Wealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civil, with a famous title-page engraving in which, from behind hills overlooking a landscape, there towered the body (above the waist) of a crowned giant, made up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing sword and crozier in the two hands. The work had immediate impact. Soon Hobbes was more lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time. However, the first effect of its publication was to sever his link with the exiled royalists, forcing him to appeal to the revolutionary English government for protection. The exiles might very well have killed him; the secularist spirit of his book greatly angered both Anglicans and French Catholics. Hobbes fled back home, arriving in London in the winter of 1651. Following his submission to the council of state he was allowed to subside into private life in Fetter Lane. Leviathan Main article: Leviathan (book) Frontispiece of Leviathan In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments based on social contract theories. Leviathan was written during the English Civil War; much of the book is occupied with demonstrating the necessity of a strong central authority to avoid the evil of discord and civil war. Beginning from a mechanistic understanding of human beings and the passions, Hobbes postulates what life would be like without government, a condition which he calls the state of nature. In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world. This inevitably leads to conflict, a war of all against all (bellum omnium contra omnes), and thus lives that are solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short (xiii). To escape this state of war, men in the state of nature accede to a social contract and establish a civil society. According to Hobbes, society is a population beneath a sovereign authority, to whom all individuals in that society cede their natural rights for the sake of protection. Any abuses of power by this authority are to be accepted as the price of peace. However, he also states that in severe cases of abuse, rebellion is expected. In particular, the doctrine of separation of powers is rejected:[11] the sovereign must control civil, military, judicial and ecclesiastical powers. Leviathan was also well-known for its radical religious views, which were often Hobbess attempt to reinterpret scripture from his materialist assumptions. His denial of incorporeal entities led him write, for example, that Heaven and Hell were places on Earth, and to take other positions out of sync with church teachings of his time. Much has been made of his religious views by scholars such as Richard Tuck and J. G. A. Pocock, but there is still widespread disagreement about the significance of Leviathans contents concerning religion. Many have taken the work to mean that Hobbes was an atheist, while others find the evidence for this position insufficient. Locke John Locke (pronounced /l? k/; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher. Locke is considered the first of the British empiricists, but is equally important to social contract theory. His ideas had enormous influence on the development of epistemology and political philosophy, and he is widely regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, classical republicans, and contributors to liberal theory. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. This influence is reflected in the American Declaration of Independence. [1] Lockes theory of mind is often cited as the origin for modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the later works of philosophers such as David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant. Locke was the first philosopher to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He also postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa; that is, contrary to Cartesian or Christian philosophy, Locke maintained that people are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived by sense perception. [2] Contents[hide] * 1 Life * 1. 1 Epitaph * 2 Influence * 2. 1 Constitution of Carolina * 2. 2 Theory of value and property * 2. 3 Political theory * 2. 3. 1 Limits to accumulation * 2. 4 On price theory * 2. 4. 1 Monetary thoughts * 2. 5 The self * 3 List of major works * 3. 1 Major unpublished or posthumous manuscripts * 4 Secondary literature * 5 See also * 6 Notes * 7 Further reading * 8 External links * 8. 1 Works * 8. 2 Resources| Life Lockes father, who was also named John Locke, was a country lawyer and clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna,[3] who had served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War. His mother, Agnes Keene, was a tanners daughter and reputed to be very beautiful. Both parents were Puritans. Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptized the same day. Soon after Lockes birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton. In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and former commander of the younger Lockes father. After completing his studies there, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university. Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of modern philosophers, such as Rene Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university. Through his friend Richard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the English Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member. Locke was awarded a bachelors degree in 1656 and a masters degree in 1658. He obtained a bachelor of medicine in 1674, having studied medicine extensively during his time at Oxford and worked with such noted scientists and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis, Robert Hooke and Richard Lower. In 1666, he met Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection. Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesburys home at Exeter House in London, to serve as Lord Ashleys personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major effect on Lockes natural philosophical thinking – an effect that would become evident in the An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Lockes medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesburys liver infection became life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo an operation (then life-threatening itself) to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life. It was in Shaftesburys household, during 1671, that the meeting took place, described in the Epistle to the reader of the Essay, which was the genesis of what would later become the Essay. Two extant Drafts still survive from this period. It was also during this time that Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords and Proprietors of the Carolinas, helping to shape his ideas on international trade and economics. Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Lockes political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in 1672. Following Shaftesburys fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France. He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesburys political fortunes took a brief positive turn. Around this time, most likely at Shaftesburys prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the Two Treatises of Government. Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, but also to counter the absolutist political philosophy of Sir Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes. Though Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history. However, Locke fled to the Netherlands, Holland, in 1683, under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot (though there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme). In the Netherlands Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time re-working the Essay and composing the Letter on Toleration. Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied William of Oranges wife back to England in 1688. The bulk of Lockes publishing took place after his arrival back in England – his aforementioned Essay Concerning Human Understanding, the Two Treatises of Civil Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration all appearing in quick succession upon his return from exile. John Locke Lockes close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at the Mashams country house in Essex. Although his time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs. During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton. He died in 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver,[4] east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691. Locke never married nor had children. Events that happened during Lockes lifetime include the English Restoration, the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London. He did not quite see the Act of Union of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotland were held in personal union throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Lockes time. Epitaph Original Latin: â€Å"| SISTE VIATOR Hic juxta situs est JOHANNES LOCKE. Si qualis fuerit rogas, mediocritate sua contentum se vixesse respondet. Literis innutritus eo usque tantum profecit, ut veritati unice litaret. Hoc ex scriptis illius disce, quae quod de eo reliquum est majori fide tibe exhibebunt, quam epitaphii suspecta elogia. Virtutes si quas habuit, minores sane quam sibi laudi duceret tibi in exemplum proponeret; vita una sepeliantur. Morum exemplum si squaeras in Evangelio habes: vitiorum utinam nusquam: mortalitatis certe (quod prosit) hic et ubique. 1632 Aug. 29Mortuum Anno Dom. 1704 Oct. 28Memorat haec tabula brevi et ipse interitura. | †| English Translation: â€Å"| STOP TRAVELLER Near this place lies JOHN LOCKE. If you are wondering what kind of man he was, he answers that he was contented with his modest lot. Bred a scholar, he made his learning subservient only to the cause of truth. You will learn this from his writings, which will show you everything about him more truthfully than the suspect praises of an epitaph. His virtues, if indeed he had any, were too slight to be lauded by him or to be an example to you. Let his vices be buried with him. Of virtue you have an example in the gospels, should you desire it; of vice would there were none for you; of mortality surely you have one here and everywhere, and may you learn from it. That he was born on the 29th of August in the year of our Lord 1632and that he died on the 28th of October in the year of our Lord 1704this tablet, which itself will soon perish, is a record. | †| Influence Locke exercised a profound influence on political philosophy, in particular on modern liberalism. Michael Zuckert has in fact argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of Church and State. He had a strong influence on Voltaire who called him le sage Locke. His arguments concerning liberty and the social contract later influenced the written works of Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and other Founding Fathers of the United States. In fact, several passages from the Second Treatise are reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, most notably the reference to a long train of abuses. Such was Lockes influence, Thomas Jefferson wrote; Bacon, Locke and Newton.. I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences. [5][6] Today, most contemporary libertarians claim Locke as an influence. But Lockes influence may have been even more profound in the realm of epistemology. Locke redefined subjectivity, or self, and intellectual historians such as Charles Taylor and Jerrold Seigel argue that Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) marks the beginning of the modern conception of the self. [7] Constitution of Carolina Appraisals of Locke have often been tied to appraisals of liberalism in general, and also to appraisals of the United States. Detractors note that (in 1671) he was a major investor in the English slave-trade through the Royal Africa Company, as well as through his participation in drafting the Fundamental Constitution of the Carolinas while Shaftesburys secretary, which established a feudal aristocracy and gave a master absolute power over his slaves. They note that as a secretary to the Council of Trade and Plantations (1673-4) and a member of the Board of Trade (1696-1700) Locke was, in fact, one of just half a dozen men who created and supervised both the colonies and their iniquitous systems of servitude[8] Some see his statements on unenclosed property as having justified the displacement of the Native Americans. Because of his opposition to aristocracy and slavery in his major writings, he is accused of hypocrisy, or of caring only for the liberty of English capitalists. Theory of value and property. Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow senses. In a broad sense, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to material goods. He argues that property is a natural right and it is derived from labor. Locke believed that ownership of property is created by the application of labor. In addition, property precedes government and government cannot dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily. Karl Marx later critiqued Lockes theory of property in his social theory. Political theory. See also: Two Treatises of Government Lockes political theory was founded on social contract theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterized by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed men to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his â€Å"Life, health, Liberty, or Possessions, basis for the phrase in America; Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. [9] Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society. However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name[10] and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day. [11] Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Constitution of the United States and its Declaration of Independence. Limits to accumulation Labor creates property, but it also does contain limits to its accumulation: man’s capacity to produce and man’s capacity to consume. According to Locke, unused property is waste and an offense against nature. However, with the introduction of â€Å"durable† goods, men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for goods that would last longer and thus not offend the natural law. The introduction of money marks the culmination of this process. Money makes possible the unlimited accumulation of property without causing waste through spoilage. He also includes gold or silver as money because they may be â€Å"hoarded up without injury to anyone,† since they do not spoil or decay in the hands of the possessor. The introduction of money eliminates the limits of accumulation. Locke stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract establishing civil society or the law of land regulating property. Locke is aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation but does not consider it his task. He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the unlimited accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth and does not say which principles that government should apply to solve this problem. However, not all elements of his thought form a consistent whole. For example, labor theory of value of the Two Treatises of Government stands side by side with the demand-and-supply theory developed in a letter he wrote titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money. Moreover, Locke anchors property in labor but in the end upholds the unlimited accumulation of wealth. On price theory Locke’s general theory of value and price is a supply and demand theory, which was set out in a letter to a Member of Parliament in 1691, titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money. [12] Supply is quantity and demand is rent. â€Å"The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyer and sellers. † and â€Å"that which regulates the price[of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent. † The quantity theory of money forms a special case of this general theory. His idea is based on â€Å"money answers all things† (Ecclesiastes) or â€Å"rent of money is always sufficient, or more than enough,† and â€Å"varies very little†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Regardless of whether the demand for money is unlimited or constant, Locke concludes that as far as money is concerned, the demand is exclusively regulated by its quantity. He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply. For supply, goods in general are considered valuable because they can be exchanged, consumed and they must be scarce. For demand, goods are in demand because they yield a flow of income. Locke develops an early theory of capitalization, such as land, which has value because â€Å"by its constant production of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income. † Demand for money is almost the same as demand for goods or land; it depends on whether money is wanted as medium of exchange or as loanable funds. For medium of exchange â€Å"money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life. † For loanable funds, â€Å"it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income †¦ or interest. † Monetary thoughts Locke distinguishes two functions of money, as a counter to measure value, and as a pledge to lay claim to goods. He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to paper money, are the appropriate currency for international transactions. Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the government which issues it. Locke argues that a country should seek a favorable balance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade. Since the world money stock grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates. The latter is less significant and less volatile than commodity movements. As for a country’s money stock, if it is large relative to that of other countries, it will cause the country’s exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do. He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for different economic groups (landholders, laborers and brokers). In each group the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues the brokers – middlemen – whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of laborers and landholders, had a negative influence on both ones personal and the public economy that they supposedly contributed to. The self Locke defines the self as that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends. [13] He does not, however, ignore substance, writing that the body too goes to the making the man. [14] The Lockean self is therefore a self-aware and self-reflective consciousness that is fixed in a body. In his Essay, Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind. Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an empty mind, a tabula rasa, which is shaped by experience; sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our ideas. [15] Lockes Some Thoughts Concerning Education is an outline on how to educate this mind: he expresses the belief that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an empty cabinet, with the statement, I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education. [16] Locke also wrote that the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences. [17] He argued that the associations of ideas that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the self: they are, put differently, what first mark the tabula rasa. In his Essay, in which is introduced both of these concepts, Locke warns against, for example, letting a foolish maid convince a child that goblins and sprites are associated with the night for darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other. [18] Associationism, as this theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over eighteenth-century thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with Dav.