Essay on Knowing Macau with Butlers Life Cycle Model

Knowing Macau with Butlers Life Cycle Model The following literature is suggesting that how a tourist destination can be analyzed with the help of Butlers Tourism Life Cycle Model. Butler (1980) introduced the concept of the model which clarifies and extends earlier work by, for example, Cristaller (1963), Noronha (1976) and Stansfield (1978). In doing so, Butler clearly links the development cycle of tourism destinations to that of products in the product life cycle model. This is one the best used management framework to know the evolution in a tourism destination as described by Baum (1998), the original Butlers model included: • Recognition of dynamism within the tourism environment Ââ€" at the time of its inception, constant†¦show more content†¦This re-assessment is to imperative for destinations in the UK and the USA (Cooper, 1992), now tourists are looking for new destinations and do suffering from boredom by knowing and visiting those destinations which are standing from decades. Macau, it is a new name in worlds recognized tourist destinations. As many tourists does not have any idea about this place (www.kvbc.com) and but rest knows this place as an Asias Las Vegas. Macao is a tiny special administrative region (SAR), a former Portuguese colony, not far ago returned to China (in 1999) under one country two systems model. In fact this tiny piece of land under Chinese rule has become more prosperous and capitalist than during the time when it formally was part of the West. In the years to come Macao may attract even more foreign capitals and people, and may even outshine Las Vegas as wor ld prime place for gambling. Despite what is developing as competition in other Asian countries, as far as Macao remains the only place in China where gambling is allowed, this tiny region can look to the future with optimism. (www.ired.com). Previously, the Macau had just a handful of casinos all owned by the same man. But now, many are under construction and with names that will be very familiar to everyone in Las Vegas. The Chinese economy and gambling restrictions are few of responsible attributes to develop this place as an emerging and a major gambling playground for adults. Minimum bets inShow MoreRelated: Knowing Macau with Butlers Life Cycle Model1773 Words   |  8 PagesKnowing Macau with Butlers Life Cycle Model The following literature is suggesting that how a tourist destination can be analyzed with the help of Butlers Tourism Life Cycle Model. Butler (1980) introduced the concept of the model which clarifies and extends earlier work by, for example, Cristaller (1963), Noronha (1976) and Stansfield (1978). In doing so, Butler clearly links the development cycle of tourism destinations to that of products in the product life cycle model. This is one the best

Working At Tacobell With A White Picket Fence - 999 Words

Jobs I’ve Held I want to live the American Dream. I have the wife, but I also want the two children and the house with a white picket fence. To do so, I have to work. Since entering the workforce at the age of 16, I’ve held many jobs working in food and beverage, fast food, and investment industries. Working in these industries has provided me with opportunities to work with different managers. All of the managers I’ve worked with had different personalities and management styles. The purpose of this paper is to identify the management styles I encountered, the type of bosses they were, and the leadership styles they demonstrated. When I entered the workforce at 16, there weren’t many high paying jobs available for someone with absolutely no previous work experience. The only job available for me was in the fast food industry, so my first job was at TacoBell. Working at TacoBell, exposed me to my very first management style. The general manager was a small middle-aged woman named Lucy. Lucy was a very stern and straight forward. The saying† you can’t teach an old dog new trick â€Å"referred to her. District managers would come into the store to train the store over new menu items, and she would argue and openly disagree with the new changes and procedures taking place. Watching these actions on numerous occasions, I realized how much of a control freak she was because she would constantly disagree and tell her boss what should be done. Then to top it off, she wasn’t kind toShow MoreRelatedWorking At Tacobell, The, And Leadership Styles922 Words   |  4 PagesJobs I’ve Held I want to live the American Dream. I have the wife, but I also want the two children with the house that has a white picket fence. To do so, I have to work. Since entering the workforce at 16, I’ve held many jobs working in food and beverage, fast food, and investment industries. Working in these industries has provided me with opportunities to work with different managers. All of the managers I’ve worked with had different personalities and management. The purpose of this paper

Bioportal Ch. 2 Study Guide Free Essays

1. Polar molecules A. have bonds with an unequal distribution of electric charge. We will write a custom essay sample on Bioportal Ch. 2 Study Guide or any similar topic only for you Order Now B. must form ions in water solution. C. have bonds with an equal distribution of electrical charge. D. have bonds with an overall negative charge. E. have bonds with an overall positive charge. Correct See Section 2. 2: How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:A Your Response:A 2. Hydrocarbons are _______ and _______, whereas salts are _______ and _______. A. nonpolar; hydrophobic; polar; hydrophilic B. nonpolar; hydrophilic; polar; hydrophobic C. polar; hydrophilic; nonpolar; hydrophobic D. polar; hydrophobic; nonpolar ; hydrophilic E. None of the above Correct See Section 2. 2: How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:A Your Response:A 3. The pH of coffee is close to 5 and that of pure water is 7. This means that A. coffee is more basic than water. B. water is more acidic than coffee. C. the H+ concentration of coffee is seven-fifths that of water. D. the H+ concentration of water is one-one hundredth that of coffee. E. the H+ concentration of water is one-hundred times that of coffee. Correct See Section 2. 4: What Makes Water So Important for Life? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:D Your Response:D 4. Which of the following statements best describes the difference between an element and a molecule? A. An element is composed of atoms; a molecule is not. B. An element is composed of only one kind of atom; molecules can be composed of more than one kind of atom. C. An element is unstable; molecules are stable. D. Elements always have lower atomic weights than molecules. E. Elements exist in nature only as parts of molecules. Correct See Section 2. 1: How Does Atomic Structure Explain the Properties of Matter? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:B Your Response:B 5. Solid salt, NaCl, is neutral. When dissolved in water, NaCl A. remains as NaCl (does not dissociate). B. dissociates to form Na– and Cl+. C. dissociates to form Na+ and Cl– ions that do not interact with water molecules. D. dissociates to form Na+ and Cl– ions that interact with water molecules. E. does not dissociate, but interacts with water molecules. Correct See Section 2. 2: How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:D Your Response:D 6. Why is the pH of a 0. 1 M solution of acetic acid in water higher than that of a 0. 1 M solution of HCl in water? A. HCl is a weaker acid than acetic acid. B. The acetic acid does not fully ionize in water, but HCl does. C. HCl does not fully ionize in water, but acetic acid does. D. Acetic acid is a better buffer than HCl. E. Acetate (ionized acetic acid) is a strong base. Correct See Section 2. 4: What Makes Water So Important for Life? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:B Your Response:B 7. The reactivity of an atom arises from the A. energy difference between the s and p orbitals. B. potential energy of the outermost shell. C. average distance of the outermost shell from the nucleus. D. um of the potential energies of all electron shells. E. existence of unpaired electrons in the outermost shell. Correct See Section 2. 2: How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:E Your Response:E 8. Covalent bond formation depends on the ability of atoms to A. share electrons with other atoms. B. donate electrons to other atoms. C. receive electrons from other atoms. D. Both a and b E. All of the above Correct See Section 2. 2: How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:A Your Response:A 9. Which of the following structures molecules is incorrect? A. CH3—NH3 B. CH2=CH2 C. CH3—NH2 D. CH3—NH3+ E. CH3—CH3 Correct See Section 2. 3: How Do Atoms Change Partners in Chemical Reactions? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:A Your Response:A 10. What property of water contributes most to the ability of fish in lakes to survive very cold winters? A. Water is cohesive. B. Water has a high heat capacity. C. Frozen water is more dense than liquid water. D. Frozen water is less dense than liquid water. E. Water forms hydrogen bonds. Correct See Section 2. 4: What Makes Water So Important for Life? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:D Your Response:D 1. Water is essential to life. Which of the following physical properties of water affect(s) life in some beneficial way? A. Cohesiveness B. High heat capacity C. High heat of vaporization D. Ice is less dense than liquid water E. All of the above Correct See Section 2. 4: What Makes Water So Important for Life? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:E Your Response:E 12. Which o f the following interactions between atoms is the strongest? A. Hydrophobic B. Ionic C. Covalent D. van der Waals E. Hydrogen bonds Correct See Section 2. 2: How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:C Your Response:C 13. Given that Avagadro’s number is 6. 02 ? 1023, how many molecules of KCl would there be in 10–13 liter of a 1 M KCl solution? A. 6. 02 ? 1036 B. 6. 02 ? 1010 C. 6. 02 ? 10–10 D. 6. 02 ? 103 E. 6. 02 ? 1013 Correct See Section 2. 4: What Makes Water So Important for Life? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:B Your Response:B 14. For a covalent bond to be polar, the two atoms that form the bond must have A. differing atomic weights. B. differing numbers of neutrons. C. differing melting points. D. differing electronegativities. E. similar electronegativities. Correct See Section 2. 2: How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:D Your Response:D 15. Which of the following statements about chemical reactions is false? A. They occur when atoms combine or change their bonding partners. B. Energy may be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. C. Reactions may go to completion. D. Changes in forms of energy may accompany chemical reactions. E. The products of a chemical reaction are formed from the reactants. Correct See Section 2. 3: How Do Atoms Change Partners in Chemical Reactions? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:B Your Response:B 16. Propane (CH3—CH2—CH3), is considered a nonpolar molecule because A. it does not contain oxygen. B. carbon and hydrogen have similar electronegativities. C. it is a gas. D. it is flammable. E. it forms hydrogen bonds. Correct See Section 2. 2: How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:B Your Response:B 17. Isotopes of an element A. are always unstable and radioactive. B. have different numbers of protons. C. have the same atomic weight. D. have different numbers of neutrons. E. have different numbers of electrons. Correct See Section 2. : How Does Atomic Structure Explain the Properties of Matter? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:D Your Response:D 18. An element that contains ten protons and ten electrons is likely to A. form covalent bonds with another element. B. form ionic bonds with another element. C. be chemically inert (stable). D. be radioactive. E. be toxic. Correct See Section 2. 2: How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molec ules? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:C Your Response:C 19. Rank the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and phosphorus (P) in decreasing order of the number of covalent bonds they usually form. A. C ; P ; N ; O ; H B. P ; O ; C ; N ; H C. P ; C ; N ; O ; H D. P ; C ; O ; N ; H E. P ; C ; O ; H ; N Correct See Section 2. 2: How Do Atoms Bond to Form Molecules? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:C Your Response:C 20. The molecular weight of acetic acid is 60. How many grams of acetic acid would be required to prepare 10 ml of a 0. 001 M (1. 0 mM) solution? A. 6. 0 B. 0. 6 C. 0. 0006 D. 0. 06 E. 0. 006 Correct See Section 2. 4: What Makes Water So Important for Life? Points Earned:1/1 Correct Answer:C Your Response:C How to cite Bioportal Ch. 2 Study Guide, Papers

Managing People and Organizations Negotiation or Mediation

Question: Describe about the Managing People and Organizations for Negotiation or Mediation. Answer: Introduction Conflicts will be solved through negotiation or mediation. Let's talk here of the conflict from the psychological perspective. Not all conflicts can or should be resolved through negotiation or mediation. For most of conflict negotiation it is usually a good settlement mechanism. Sometimes it is desirable not to let the negotiation and conflict comes to the end. Negotiation is a process whereby interested parties resolve disputes, agree on courses of action, seeking individual or collective benefits or seek to obtain results that serve their mutual interests. Conflicts can be faced with other types of mechanisms such as: The denial of the conflict (leading to a postponement of the conflict).The more spontaneous and natural tendency is domination (actually subjects too often what they seek is to dominate, subdue or overcome the contrary). Domination is often not fully aware (nor other attitudes adopted). This occurs both because society supports and premium competitiveness from psychology and must change this attitude (Armbrust, 2000). Conflict theory Conflict theory (TC) comes from the world of military strategy. The classical scholars of conflict, from Tucdedes and Sun Tzu, Machiavelli to Marx and Von Clausewitz, focused on a specific aspect of the conflict: power. These mechanisms are alternative ways to solve conflicts. Almost all things are negotiable. But there are others that are not. The negotiable: almost everything. The non-negotiable: central or held beliefs (abortion, belief in gods, is the core beliefs we identify ourselves. Rubin criticisms: there are indeed core beliefs but often the meaning has to depend on how they are addressed or express.It is absolute when the objectives are completely different when what wins it loses one another. Often it is modulated by social and cultural mechanisms (Biech, 2008). It is relative positions are perceived as antagonistic, but are not completely opposed (there are some compatible issues, which have in common). Most of the incompatibilities are relative. Desiderative thought: anchored to desire, emotional. It is not a rational thought. Perversion of the conflict: impression formation, the ultimate expression of the mystification of the formation of impressions is the self-fulfilling prophecy (the formation of impressions can create realities: a thought causes a behavior to the other which is interpreted as the first thought and returns the erroneous thinking the other in the form of behavior, confirming the first erroneous thinking. Or something like that!) (Conflicts, 2010). Cognitive reactance: the emotional reaction usually undirected cut to an individual when they perceive that their freedom is inadequate or unfairly limited. Goodness Dispute The primary connotation of the term conflict is negative. When this issue is raised there are 2 large positions: Sociological (Frankfurt School): The conflict is good, because it is the engine of social change. For Marxists conflict equal expression of change Constructive or negative attitude towards finding solutions in conflicts and negotiations No matter how the conflict works, it is important how people act. If people have a negative attitude, the conflict will be negative and if positive would be a constructive conflict. The consequences have the same problem as the cause. There is talk in terms of values and a problem to wait out, so it is difficult to intervene in a conflict. Any dispute involves a number of risks; to the extent possible be minimized. Risks and alter the channels of communication and interactions, increased perceptual distortions and prejudices, promoting polarity and hostility, self-concept and self-image, reduced sense of efficacy, decreased work motivation, in the absence cooperation; increased effort and loss of work capacity or when the conflict transcends loss of credibility of the organization and trust between users (Dahms, n.d.). Some authors speak of negative elements rather than risk conflict. Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Questionnaire This model has an advantage: a questionnaire to measure what the general attitude of the individual to the conflict is made. Measure this kind of attitude in 3 different situations: If the conflict has a superior to a subordinate or equal to it. The styles are often insufficient. These are general styles of conflict because there are so many styles of conflict and ways to address them. This point refers to the type of conflict; the next point is how to deal with conflict. Social skills related to conflict Intelligence was taken as a good predictor of the ability to solve problems. He also spoke of the existence of a factor G, because it could think there was a break between the intellectual capacity of an individual and the ability of social action. Over time the need to develop a new element had; social intelligence, emotional intelligence. Different forms of behavior can be employed skills to deal with different types of problems or conflicts. And these forms can be trained: train behavioral patterns to resolve conflicts. There is a possibility that individuals learn skills to address specific problems (identify the problem, standardize the performance, performance testing). Social skills play a key role role-playing and case analysis. Both techniques are the main approach to training.Also in the field of conflict and negotiation they have studied the social skills that best suit each case: Assertiveness It has to do with "self-affirmation". Feeling a person who claims his desires, his ideas the person manifests herself consistent. With regard to conflicts, assertive person is manifested in a resolute way, seeks to solve the problems, addressed to resolve the conflict and tends to the domination of the other party. No waiver of the interests of one, but neither attempts to pass above the other. Negotiation Way of resolving conflicts of all kinds. To negotiate must be conflict and the parties must know and analyze it. It is the most effective social skills. The processes of conflict and conflict negotiation intermingle, are not linear. (No strings like occur, first conflict and then negotiating) Unions now prefer negotiations to confrontation. The system is what we have, but what we need to do is improve it. Johari window Model It is a technique used for knowing the relationship between two or more interrelated parties within a social set up. A very important element in the negotiating power: balance / imbalance of power. In the case of imbalance, one party is more powerful than the other. This is not a negotiation as it occurs in all terms because the powerful party imposes rather than negotiate. But it does not have to, because with external pressures can be a good bargain (Davies, n.d.). For a negotiation to work well has to be a balance of power (not to be a very large imbalance). Power, often viewed from a quantitative perspective (who has more) but can also be qualitative (ability to generate a good negotiation, to influence third parties, coalitions do ...). It is the bargaining power. The power can also be rebalanced institutionally (eg. In divorce law welcomes more women because it is believed more helpless because there is work ..., the law protects women and rebalance the power in this conflict). Communication and interaction process: negotiation in this process. Thus, the negotiation falls squarely in social psychology, but also studied from the law, economics, and human resources. is an interdisciplinary event. The assumptions are that It is a peaceful process of dialogue and communication. It does not support pressures. Until they do not end the negotiation does not start. There is no negotiation under pressure. Types of negotiation intrapersonal Control: cognitive dissonance. In informal negotiation roles is given by the agents of conflict. Formally, the role of president, representatives, and consultants .There are indispensable roles (the negotiator) and there are other sides (third parties, consultants). Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI) This is a multi- rater diagnostic tool that is designed to vary and weigh the social intelligence and emotional competencies. It helps to build interrelation boundaries in conflicts and negotiations. Relationship "mixed motive": negotiator meets a role conflict. It is an antagonist of the other party; it must grant and obtain (2 reasons) things about him, to resolve the conflict: paradox negotiator. Negotiation is a voluntary process: one retires when he wants. This will give you great flexibility and the parties make a joint decision not imposed (Daft Marcic, 2014). It is not a perceptually anchored process: it is assumed that when the parties perceive that they will not give more others, but it is a perception and not know if you really would yield more other or not. A point that is often overlooked, both in business and in personal interactions, is to recognize if we are in a favorable situation for negotiation. In general, most of the situations faced by the interests of the people are resolvable through negotiation. However, on a few occasions, we find ourselves in situations that are not resolvable from the conceptual framework of a traditional negotiation (Phan Baurain, 2011). Strengths and weaknesses Conflict as an opportunity. A conflict can be an opportunity. Positive aspects of the conflict: engine of change, perceived effectiveness, new communication channels, opportunity to learn negotiation skills, opportunity to promote cohesion and group identity, opportunity to improve interpersonal perceptions, promoting recognition of different views, contribution the creation of positive values (cooperation, competition, respect, participation, etc.) Behind every conflict there is always a change. Ask whether it is good to conflicts to bring about change, presents the problem of riding a little conflict is real, and it probably is not the right approach. The first thing is to know which aspects you want to change and not all change involves conflict. In principle conflict does not invigorates if this does not change. Conflicts, when unchecked, have a tendency to increase (increasingly large and difficult to control). It is not just a quantitative increase conflict, but appears in other psychological and social phenomena that make it even more complex (Mayer, n.d.).If, however, a possible negotiation situation, our fears and distrusts make us adopt positions that we build ourselves the worst possible scenario. Therefore, mistaking a negotiating situation with conflict management is a serious mistake that we can not afford. Then we analyze the aspects that distinguish negotiation and conflict and give some guidelines to address these situations. Areas of Capabilities Distinguish between negotiation and conflict In general; the conflict word is used as a conflict of interests. In fact, it is considered to negotiation as one of the MARC's (alternative methods of dispute resolution).Let us now use the word conflict in a similar sense to that used in battles, i.e. situations where traditional negotiations would not lead to a good end result. Similarly, in business and, more commonly, in the political, ambushes occur, that is, actions that the other party does not seek an agreement, but to provoke a strong, devastating effect that put in a situation advantage and often permanently eliminate our chances (Tieleman Buelens, 2012). How to tell when we are in a negotiation situation or conflict? Normally, for a negotiation situation it is of, we need two conditions or rules: Rule gain of the parties states that negotiation is seen as a process in which all parties will win something. It is also called the rule we all win. We consider that which no one of these rules will lead to a conflict in that ambush, as we indicated before met. Conclusion The application of the theory of conflict (TC) to work or personal relationships is not without controversy. Assimilation or use of techniques that have been used by the great military strategists contains a certain aspect of violence and possibly perversion that has overshadowed this theory for many years. Only in recent years, with the award of several Nobel prizes applications conflict theory to biology or economics; they have restored the position that should have occupied this branch of knowledge. Like any other tool, CT is capable of being used for a few ethical purposes. We are going to focus on the ethical use and both useful, which is to encourage negotiations (Mayer, n.d.). When a negotiation takes place, there are many tensions affecting the negotiators. Arguments happen from one side to another and it is possible that at some point, communication degrading and reach a point of tension that makes the relationship, as we indicated in the rule of common sense, left broken and disable the way of trading. References Armbrust, W. (2000). Mass mediations. Berkeley: University of California Press. Biech, E. (2008). The Pfeiffer book of successful team-building tools. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Conflicts. (2010). Cambridge. Daft, R. Marcic, D. (2014). Building management skills. Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning. Dahms, H. Mediations of social life in the 21st century. Davies, S. Johari's window. Dynes, R. (2008). Instant session plans for essential life skills. Lyme Regis, Dorset: Russell House Pub. Johari window. (2012). [Place of publication not identified]. Mayer, B. The conflict paradox. Nystuen, G. (2005). Achieving peace or protecting human rights?. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. Pfetsch, F. (2007). Negotiating political conflicts. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Phan, L. Baurain, B. (2011). Voices, identities, negotiations, and conflicts. London: Emerald Group Pub. Phillips, B. (2001). The mediation field guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Tieleman, K. Buelens, M. (2012). Negotiations. Leuven: LannooCampus. Wall, J. (2008). Mediations in Cultural Spaces. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Pub.

Digestive System Essays - Digestive System, Human Digestive System

Digestive System On this page you will learn about the Digestive System, which break down foods in to smaller pieces, so they can be used as an energy source for the body. C O N T E N T S : Basic Information The digestive system contain organs for changing food chemically for absorption by body tissues. It is also responsible for processing food , breaking it down into usable protein, minerals, carbohydrates and fats and other substance. The digestion process involves breaking food into simple soluble substances absorbable by tissues. The digestion process includes both mechanical and chemical processes. The mechanical processes include chewing to reduce food to small particles, the churning action of the stomach, and intestinal peristaltic action. The three chemical reactions take place : conversions of carbohydrates into such simple sugars as glucose, breaking down of protein into such amino acids as alanine, and conversion of fats into fatty acids and glycerol. These processes are accomplishes by specific enzymes. The Digestive Journey The digestive process starts in your mouth when you start eating. The salivary glands produce secretions that are mixed with the food. The saliva breaks down starches into dextrin and maltose. Then it goes down your esophagus in peristaltic waves to the stomach. This only takes the matter of seconds. The stomach contains gastric juice and the gastric juice contains chemicals such as hydrochloric acid and some enzymes, including pepsin, rennin, and lipase. Pepsin breaks proteins into peptones and proteoses. Rennin separates milk into liquid and solid portions and lipase acts on fat. Another function of stomach digestion is gradually to release materials into the upper small intestine, where digestion is completed. After the solid food has been digested the fluid remaining is called chyme When it is thoroughly digested it pass through the pylorus sphincter to the small intestine. Here in the small intestine all the nutrients are absorbed from the chyme into the bloodstream leaving the rest or the unusable residue. The residue pass through the colon or large intestine to the rectum. The solid waste, called feces pass through the anal canal and the anus.

Second Battle of El Alamein in World War II

Second Battle of El Alamein in World War II The Second Battle of El Alamein was fought from October 23, 1942 to November 5, 1942 during World War II (1939-1945) and was the turning point of the campaign in the Western Desert. Having been driven east by Axis forces in 1942, the British had established a strong defensive line at El Alamein, Egypt. Recovering and reinforcing, new leadership on the British side commenced planning an offensive to regain the initiative. Launched in October, the Second Battle of El Alamein saw British forces grind through the enemy defenses before shattering the Italo-German lines. Short on supplies and fuel, Axis forces were compelled to retreat back into Libya. The victory ended the threat to the Suez Canal and provided a significant boost to Allied morale. Background In the wake of its victory at the Battle of Gazala (May-June, 1942), Field Marshal Erwin Rommels Panzer Army Africa pressed British forces back across North Africa. Retreating to within 50 miles of Alexandria, General Claude Auchinleck was able to stop the Italo-German offensive at El Alamein in July. A strong position, the El Alamein line ran 40 miles from the coast to the impassable Quattara Depression. While both sides paused to rebuild their forces, Prime Minister Winston Churchill arrived in Cairo and decided to make command changes. New Leadership Auchinleck was replaced as Commander-in-Chief Middle East by General Sir Harold Alexander, while the 8th Army was given to Lieutenant General William Gott. Before he could take command, Gott was killed when the Luftwaffe shot down his transport. As a result, command of the 8th Army was assigned to Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery. Moving forward, Rommel attacked Montgomerys lines at the Battle of Alam Halfa (August 30-September 5) but was repulsed. Choosing to take a defensive stance, Rommel fortified his position and placed over 500,000 mines, many of which were anti-tank types. Field Marshal Harold Alexander. Armies Commanders British Commonwealth General Sir Harold AlexanderLieutenant General Bernard Montgomery220,00 men1,029 tanks750 aircraft900 field guns1,401 anti-tank guns Axis Powers Field Marshal Erwin RommelLieutenant General Georg Stumme116,000 men547 tanks675 aircraft496 anti-tank guns Monty's Plan Due to the depth of Rommels defenses, Montgomery carefully planned his assault. The new offensive called for infantry to advance across the minefields (Operation Lightfoot) which would allow engineers to open two routes through for the armor. After clearing the mines, the armor would reform while the infantry defeated the initial Axis defenses. Across the lines, Rommels men were suffering from a severe lack of supplies and fuel. With the bulk of German war materials going to the Eastern Front, Rommel was forced to rely on captured Allied supplies. His health failing, Rommel took leave to Germany in September. General Erwin Rommel in North Africa, 1941. Photograph Courtesy of the National Archives Records Administration A Slow Start On the night of October 23, 1942, Montgomery began a heavy 5-hour bombardment of the Axis lines. Behind this, 4 infantry divisions from XXX Corps advanced over the mines (the men did not weigh enough to trip the anti-tank mines) with the engineers working behind them. By 2:00 AM the armored advance began, however progress was slow and traffic jams developed. The assault was supported by diversionary attacks to the south. As dawn approached, the German defense was hampered by the loss of Rommels temporary replacement, Lieutenant General Georg Stumme, who died of a heart attack. German Counterattacks Taking control of the situation, Major-General Ritter von Thoma coordinated counterattacks against the advancing British infantry. Though their advance was bogged down, the British defeated these assaults and the first major tank engagement of the battle was fought. Having opened a six mile wide and five mile deep inroad into Rommels position, Montgomery began shifting forces north to inject life into the offensive. Over the next week, the bulk of the fighting occurred in the north near a kidney-shaped depression and Tel el Eisa. Returning, Rommel found his army stretched with only three days of fuel remaining. Axis Fuel Shortages Moving divisions up from the south, Rommel quickly found that they lacked the fuel to withdraw, leaving them exposed in the open. On October 26, this situation worsened when Allied aircraft sank a German tanker near Tobruk. Despite Rommels hardships, Montgomery continued to have difficulty breaking through as Axis anti-tank guns mounted a stubborn defense. Two days later, Australian troops advanced northwest of Tel el Eisa towards Thompsons Post in an attempt to break through near the coast road. On the night of October 30, they succeeded in reaching road and repelled numerous enemy counterattacks. British infantry attack at El Alamein, October 24, 1942. Public Domain Rommel Retreats: After assaulting the Australians again with no success on November 1, Rommel began to concede that the battle was lost and began planning a retreat 50 miles west to Fuka. At 1:00 AM on November 2, Montgomery launched Operation Supercharge with the goal of forcing the battle into the open and reaching Tel el Aqqaqir. Attacking behind an intense artillery barrage, the 2nd New Zealand Division and the 1st Armored Division met stiff resistance, but forced Rommel to commit his armored reserves. In the resulting tank battle, the Axis lost over 100 tanks. His situation hopeless, Rommel contacted Hitler and asked for permission to withdraw. This was promptly denied and Rommel informed von Thoma that they were to stand fast. In assessing his armored divisions, Rommel found that fewer than 50 tanks remained. These were soon destroyed by British attacks. As Montgomery continued to attack, entire Axis units were overrun and destroyed opening a 12-mile hole in Rommels line. Left with no choice, Rommel ordered his remaining men to begin retreating west. On November 4, Montgomery launched his final assaults with the 1st, 7th, and 10th Armored Divisions clearing the Axis lines and reaching open desert. Lacking sufficient transportation, Rommel was forced to abandon many of his Italian infantry divisions. As a result, four Italian divisions effectively ceased to exist. Aftermath The Second Battle of El Alamein cost Rommel around 2,349 killed, 5,486 wounded, and 30,121 captured. In addition, his armored units effectively ceased to exist as a fighting force. For Montgomery, the fighting resulted in 2,350 killed, 8,950 wounded, and 2,260 missing, as well as around 200 tanks permanently lost. A grinding battle that was similar to many fought during World War I, the Second Battle of El Alamein turned the tide in North Africa in favor of the Allies. Pushing west, Montgomery drove Rommel back to El Agheila in Libya. Pausing to rest and rebuild his supply lines, he continued to attack in mid-December and pressed the German commander into retreating again. Joined in North Africa by American troops, who had landed in Algeria and Morocco, Allied forces succeeded in evicting the Axis from North Africa on May 13, 1943 (Map).

Apple Inc Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Apple Inc Case Study - Essay Example The key factors were seen to be innovative products not backed by quality, frequent change of leadership and the recessive trends in the economy that had significantly reduced the buying power of the consumers. It is felt that in the fast changing environment of technology and rapid globalization, there is marked convergence of changing preferences across the globe. Therefore, it becomes important for the firms to introduce the product at the right time is crucial but at the same time, the success would also depend on its quality and the pricing. The report is prepared for the management of Apple Inc. so as to identify the issues and problems, analyze them to evolve strategies and recommendations to improve and improvise the performance outcome of the organization’s aims and objectives. The company had undergone dramatic changes since its inception in 1976. The early success was followed by considerable loss in revenues and market share in 1981. The company’s fortunes catapulted to regain its market position that kept steadily rising till 2008, when the company was again faced with many challenges and slow growth, showing significant loss of revenue. The main problems and issues identified were as follow: The management seemed to lose its initial focus on innovation and preferred analyzing the current problems to the exclusion of introducing newer products to meet the fast changing demands of the public. When the company was launched in 1976 by Wazniak and job, both were driven by the fact that the novelty of the product (computers) and its utility value outweighed its cost and appeal to the people. That was the reason that the Apple products had huge initial success. Later, when IBM and Microsoft came into the field and introduced affordability into the market strategy, Apple Inc was the hardest hit company and showed tremendous decline in profits and plummeting of its market share to 3%. The

IT - WiMAX Networks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

IT - WiMAX Networks - Essay Example 3) The architecture should be compatible with different usage models like fixed, portable, nomadic, etc. 4) The architecture should have the capability to provide IP services and separate the access network and connectivity network. 5) The architecture should provide assistance to network access provider (NAP) the network service provider (NSP), and the application service providers (ASP). 6) By utilizing the internet engineering, the architecture should provide assistance to3GPP/3GPP2, Wi-Fi, and wired networks. Image Source: [1] Mobile WiMAX Network The architecture of mobile WiMAX consists of All IP platform, all packets technology and no circuit switch telephony. The open IP architecture provide network operator’s huge elasticity while choosing way outs that work with legacy networks or so as to use the most advanced equipments and in shaping what functionality they desire their system to maintain. They can select from an upright incorporated seller to facilitate offers a turnkey way out or they can decide on and choose from a thick ecosystem of best-of-breed companies with a more thin focus. The architecture permits modularity and elasticity to provide somewhere to stay a wide variety of consumption options such as small scale to large scale, urban, suburban and rural coverage, mesh topologies , flat , hierarchical and their variant, and finally, co-existence of permanent , wandering moveable and mobile usage models. Mobile WiMAX has equally the mobility and Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) functionalities to the IEEE 802.16- 2004 protocol. It is one of two protocols accept by the WiMAX forum with the other one being the IEEE 802.16 – 2004. The WiMAX system architecture can logically be characterized by a Network Reference Model (NRM). ASN The ASN is commonly referred as the access network of WiMAX and its major responsibly is to offer the communication between the user and the core network services. The Major responsibilities of the ASN are †¢ The ASN must provide relinquish †¢ The Validation of AAA (authentication, authorization and accounting) server through proxy. †¢ The ANS must manage the radio resource †¢ Provide co-operations for other ASN networks. †¢ Provide a functional coordination between CSN and MS, Technologies Engaged By WiMAX Mobile WiMAX has the operating frequency band of 2 to 6 MHz. In order to perform different functions the WiMAX has to employ the following [2]. †¢ Scalable Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (SOFDMA). †¢ MIMO †¢ IP (Internet Protocol) †¢ Adaptive antenna systems (AAS) †¢ Adaptive Modulation schemes (AMS) †¢ Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) There are vast possibilities of the WiMAX to be utilized as the prior network service for the users as it is capable of providing the data services as well as voice services by the utilization of VOIP (voice over internet protocol) that enables the user to send and receives the telephony services by utilizing the WiMAX services. Difference between WiMAX and Wifi The major difference between the WiMAX and Wifi is the difference in the range. Wifi is a short range wireless network having operation in 100 meters or a bit more however, WiMAX network has the range of about several kilometers. Wifi can work in an unlicensed or open spectrum, while WiMAX has a particular licensed frequency spectrum. WiMAX is typically utilized for providing the services by utilizing the IEEE 802.16 such as data services from ISP to the end user and telephony services

Exceptionalism in All Quiet on the western Front Research Paper

Exceptionalism in All Quiet on the western Front - Research Paper Example The exceptionalism which is used remains throughout the book as an expression of the war; however, it is broken by the end of the book to show the shock and reality of war meaning more than the boundaries created by the country which one is a part of. The exceptionalism breaks enough to show that the soldiers were the exception, as opposed to the patriotism and beliefs about the war which many had. Defining Sides and Exceptionalism The concept of exceptionalism by the narrator is displayed from the first pages. The technique is used with the knowledge that the narrator is in a war for Germany and is fighting in France. While there is little reference to the patriotism held in Germany, there is a focus on the other surrounding countries and how these forces are causing the main suffering of the soldiers. For instance, the narrator states â€Å"It is true that we have no right to this windfall. The Prussian is not so generous. We have only a miscalculation to thank for it†¦.on th e last day an astonishing number of English heavies opened up on us with high –explosive, drumming ceaselessly on our position, so that we suffered severely and came back only eighty strong† (Remarque, 2). ... The approach of creating boundaries and defining exceptionalism by building a sense of mercy to the German troops is a tactic which the narrator displays throughout the entire book. The definition of exceptionalism is then seen through the eye of the narrator, which makes the reader sympathetic to the side that is being spoken about. The idea of warfare that is expressed becomes a means of protecting the country against the actions being taken from the other countries. It also associates with the reader being able to witness the actions which are taken, similar to a news related item. When reading this, the individual has knowledge only about the side of the narrator and the attacks that are causing suffering from the Americans, English or the Prussians. The division is instantly created because of the initiative to narrate and express the divisions of identity by nationality first (Atwood, 31). The division which was created according to the countries was furthered as the war contin ued, specifically by showing how Germany and France lost the battle to others who had more. For instance, the end of the book states how America and the English came in with â€Å"new† materials to fight (Remarque, 259). This approach shows how the divisions in country were based on the strategies which were used for war and left Germany and France at a disadvantage. It also shows how there was an unfair treatment and approach toward the war, specifically because these new strategies led to pointed deaths that the narrator speaks about. Each of these complexities then leads to sympathy with the soldiers in France and Germany as the exception fighting the war, despite the loss which occurred. Patriotism and the War The narrations of divisions that are against other

The Factors that Lead to Instability of Commodity Price

The Factors that Lead to Instability of Commodity Price 1.1 Background of the study Commodity price will influence the economy in some countries in the world. There are many factor that can cause the instability of commodity price. As we know commodity can be classified as goods that demanded by the people. In the economic theory, if the demand higher than the supply it can cause shortage, if this is happen the economy in the country will be instable. In the case of commodities, there are several technique to secure the price of commodity in order to make sure the price is stable. For example, change in exchanged rate, world political situation, inflation, global output, industrial production and etc. 1.2 Problem statement Over many years, there are many researchers make an analysis about the factor that lead to instability of commodity price. Most of them discover a different idea through out their research about the instability of commodity price. This is important to a country to know what is actually the cause of this factor. Therefore, a research must be conduct in order to know what is actually the factor that lead to instability of commodity price. 1.3 Research objectives The research objectives of this research as follows: To determine the factor that lead to instability of commodity price. To know the relationship between the factors toward the commodity price. To identify the effect of commodity price. 1.4 Scope and limitation of study In order to complete the research of the study, I have gathered trusted information from the internet. Few journals have been chosen to get some additional information. After that, in order to get what the objectives want of this study, secondary data have been chosen. The limitation of this study is to choose the best method that can conduct this research and it is hard to choose. There are methods can be used to know the factor that lead to instability of commodity price. 1.5 Significance of the problem By doing analysis on this study, we can reduce the risk of increasing commodity price due to the economic crisis.besides, we can determine the signoificant variables that effecting the commodity price. This research also can give advantages to government because they can control the commodity prce base on the economic condition. 2.0 Literature Review Commodity can be defined as goods whereby it is demanded by the people. As we can see today, the price of commodity is now increasing. In my opinion, it may be due the cost of resources that is also increasing. Therefore, we can say that the price of commodity is determined wholly by the market function. Commodity goods are consists of sugar, crude oil, gold, rice and etc. When the value of commodity increases, the cost will increase as well. There are some reasons that lead to the instability of the price of commodity. Thus, I have found out few reasons from knowledgable person that lead to the instability of the price of commodity. A study of Frankel Rose (2009), have shown that the price of commodity is influence by inflation and global output. It was found that the relationship between the commodity and both the inflation and global output is positive. In addition, the microeconomic variables also affect the commodity price. For example, inventories. Another evidence also shown that the inflation also influence the commodity price (Gospodinov Ng, 2010). After the unemployment gap and oil price being controlled, it was found that the price of 23 commodities were influenced by the inflation. Another study of Bower, Geis Winkler (2007), also shown that the inflation and exchange rate also influence the price of commodity. On the other hand, the study of Pindyck Rotemberg (1990), the macroeconomic shock influence the instability of price commodity, whereby, the industrial production and inflation will determine the future demand for commodity and will later affect the price of commodity. Thus, wh en the interest rate increase, the commodity price will decrease. However, the study of Bastourre, Carrera Ibarlucia (2007) have shown a different view on what affect the commodity price. This is because, in the long run the Argentina commodity price is influence by the real interest rate, real exchange rate of United States of America and the demand of raw materials. Other different view regarding instability of commodity price is influence by predictions of conditional variance and conditional expectations theories (Laroque, 1997). The global monetary conditions could also influenced the price of commodity whereby, in another study of Anzuin,Lombardi pagano(2010), it was found that the monetary policy shock gave impact to the instability of commodity price. In a different study of Wescott Hoffman (1999), it was found that the price of commodity as in corn and wheat were influenced by the agricultural policies, stockholding and government pricing support. When the agricultural policy maker asked the producer to increase the price, then the commodity price need to be increased or vice versa. According to Lalonde, Zhu Demers (2003), it has shown that the world economic activity and the effective exchange rate of US dollar lead to influence the price of commodity. Thus, if the economic activity is active, it may lead to increase in commodity price. On the other hand, according to Tadesse Guttormsen (2010) the periodic price threshold influence the instability of commodity price. When the price of threshold increase, the commodity price will increase as well. After viewing the resources, I found several factors that lead to the instability of commodity price. Those factors consist of inflation, exchange rate, interest rate, global output and more. After identifying all the factors, the theoretical framework can be sketched. Thus, the method to be used can be indentified and hypotheses can be made after analyzing all the data. 2.1 Theoretical framework Inflation Exchange Rate The factor that lead to instability of commodity price Interest rate Global output Theoretical framework is the part of the study including in research methodology. Usually the network of association can be more clear explained the entire variable in the study. If we look to the sketch above, there were independent variable on the left side and dependent variable on the right side. What is Independent and dependent variables? Independent is the variables that lend itself, and dependent vice versa. From the sketch of theoretical framework above, we can see that the independent variable consist of four, inflation, exchange rate, interest rate and global output. The dependent variable is the factor that lead to instability of commodity price. 3.0 DATA METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction By using the secondary data the factor that lead to instability of commodity price can be conducted. Secondary data can be define as the data that already exist by the previous researcher. The data is consist of published and unpublished material such as journal, article and etc. Through the data base, the secondary data can be gained. Thus, the methods for this analysis are used to complete the objectives of the analysis. 3.2 Data, population and sampling method In order to complete the research, the data can be collected from world bank and Bursa Malaysia. the population is data is collected for Malaysian only. It is because this research is on commodity price in Malaysia. In my opinion population is the group of people that lives together in certain area. The researcher can gain their information or data in that area in order to complete his research. For example, if the researcher want to investigate about academic dishonesty or plagiarism among the students in UiTM Sabah, he must collect the data from the population in UiTM Sabah only. On the other hand, this research is doing in Malaysia so that the data collected must be suitable because the data based on commodity price in Malaysia. Sampling method is divided into two which is probability sampling and non probability sampling. By using this sampling method, researcher can cut a lot of time doing research and also can cut cost. 3.3 Analysis of data To estimate the data, the univariate modeling technique such as naÃÆ'Â ¯ve trend model, exponential smoofhing and lagragian model will be use. 3.4 Hypothesis development The hypothesis that can be concluded for this research is whether the dependent variable such as inflation, exchange rate, interest rate and global output will effect the instability of commodity price. The directional and the non directional hypothesis is the classification of hypothesis. The null and alternate hypothesis can either be rejected or accepted in accordance with the result from the test of the variables. 3.5 Summary Before conducting a research, we have two element that have to be taken into consideration that is the data and methodology. It is better to make sure the availability of data before one proceeds to do research. To gain an accurate result for a research we must use proper methods. When data is already gathered and analyzed, hypothesis can then be tested.

F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby as Criticism of American Society

  Ã‚  Ã‚   In The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald criticizes American society in the 1920?s for its tendencies to waste, advertise, form superficial relationships, and obsess over appearances. The work has been praised for both its brutal realism and its keen depiction of the age that The New York Times referred to as the era when, 'gin was the national drink and sex was the national obsession'(Fitzgerald vii).   ' . . . indifference is presented as a moral failure - a failure of society, particularly the society of the American east to recognize the imperatives of truth and honesty and justice? (Gallo 35).     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   F. Scott Fitzgerald criticizes the wasteful tendencies of American society.   He uses the valley of ashes to refer to this ugly aspect of American society.   The valley of ashes is a bleak area situated between the West Egg and New York City, 'where ashes take the forms of houses and chimneys and rising smoke and, finally, with a transcendent effort, of men who move dimly and already crumbling through the powdery air'(Fitzgerald 23).   This unpleasant wasteland is located right along the roadway and train route between the eggs, home of the lofty aristocrats, and New York City, the exciting and fashionable metropolis where many of the nations wealthiest people live, work, and entertain themselves.   'There is no essential difference between the moneyed wastelands of New York City and Long Island and the valley of ashes,' (Gallo 49)  Ã‚   Referring to an eye doctor's billboard in the valley of ashes, Nick, our narrator comments:   Evidently some wild wag of an oculist set them there to fatten his practice   in the borough of Queens, and then sank down himself into eternal   blindness or forgot them and moved away.   But ... ... Moment: The Novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1970. Whitley, John S.   F. Scott Fitzgerald: "The Great Gatsby." London: Edward Arnold, 1976. Outline Thesis statement: In The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald criticizes American society in the 1920?s for its tendency to waste, advertise, form superficial relationships, and obsess over appearances. I. Introduction   A. Literary Classic   B. Societal Criticism    1. wasteful tendency    2. advertising obsession    3. superficial relationships    4. appearances fixation II. Wasteful Tendency   A. Valley of Ashes   B. Gatsby   C. Tom and Daisy III. Advertising Obsession   A. Billboard   B. McKees   C. Tom   D. Daisy   E. Gatsby III. Appearances Fixation   A. Myrtle   B. Catherine   C. Gatsby IV. Superficial Relationships   A. Billboard   B. Myrtle?s Party

Criminal Justice: the Right Job for You

I am going to be talking about 3 key social issues contributing to the need for criminal justice practitioners and providing examples for each issue. I will also be explaining the role of the criminal justice professional in serving individual and societal needs. Lastly I will explain how key social issues impact the role of the criminal justice professional and provide 2-3 examples to support my position. One key social issue contributing to the need for criminal justice practitioners is prison crowding. Prison overcrowding is one of America's most serious criminal justice issues. The problem is because of insufficient jail and prison space, for which the solution is to build more jail and prison facilities. According to a 2008 study by the Pew Center on the States, the United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world, with one in 100 Americans under the supervision of the criminal justice system. Mandatory minimum sentences for drug crimes are a key factor in the high rate of incarceration. Another key issue contributing to the need for criminal justice practitioners is immigration. Immigration raises three significant, controversial issues in criminal justice. The first is the time and resources necessary to deport immigrants, whether they are documented or undocumented, and who have been convicted of crimes. The second is whether and to what extent local law enforcement resources should be used locating and removing undocumented immigrants. The third issue is the extent to which law enforcement emphasis should be on persons who transport and employ undocumented immigrants, rather than on the immigrants themselves. A major issue contributing to the need for criminal justice practitioners is poverty. You can read also  Justice System Position Paper The severity of poverty often goes hand in hand with the amount of crimes committed. Money is often reinvested from the open market to the black market to bring about high yet risky return in urban areas. Risks such as these are even higher when this activity is controlled by violent mob-type organizations and gangs, whose existences are structured around capitalizing on the poverty of others. Realistic and reachable role models are far and few between, if any exist at all, which causes the children of those who live in these areas to look up to more unsavory figures who are living the high life through low living. While living in poverty some people resort to crime to support their habits (drugs and/or alcohol) and/or support their families. Because of this crime rates go up, the amount of people incarcerated goes up, and the tax dollars go up to keep the prisons and jails running. The role of criminal justice professionals in serving individual and societal needs is very broad. There are many positions in the criminal justice field in many different areas with different tasks and responsibilities. Criminal justice professionals spend a lot of time resolving conflicts and negotiating with various parties inside and outside their organizations. They handle complaints, settle disputes, and resolve grievances and conflicts, usually by negotiating with several parties. Sometimes they perform this task in conjunction with another one, evaluating information to determine compliance, which requires them to review relevant information and use their individual judgment to determine whether events or processes comply with laws, regulations, or standards. Criminal Justice professionals oversee safety, gather information and documentation, provide testimony, and they are expected to regularly provide information to supervisors, co-workers, and subordinates to support their positions. One key social issue that impacts the role of criminal justice professionals is requiring more correctional officers or detention officers due to overcrowding. Yet there are more inmates in jails and prisons and there are not enough correctional officers or detention officers to staff the prisons and jails. In return the staff are overworked with mandatory overtime and compensated with extra days off instead of overtime pay. Immigration is another key social issue that impacts the role of criminal justice professionals. There is a continuous battle about controlling the border of Mexico and how to control it. There is much violence at the border from illegal immigrants and drug cartels. Border Patrol Agents lives are put at risk every day trying to protect the border because of this violence. There are many social issues contributing to the need for criminal justice practitioners and there always will be. The need will increase with time as will crime because of these social issues. There will always be a place in society for the criminal justice practitioner.

Hilbert College Admissions (Costs, Scholarships Aid More)

Hilbert College Admissions (Costs, Scholarships Aid More) Hilbert College Admissions Overview: Hilbert College is test-optional, meaning that applicants are not required to submit ACT or SAT scores as part of their applications. The school has an acceptance rate of 81%, making it generally accessible to interested students. Along with an application and transcript, prospective students are encouraged to submit letters of recommendation, a writing sample, and a resume. Will You Get In? Calculate Your Chances of Getting In  with this free tool from Cappex Admissions Data (2016): Hilbert College Acceptance Rate: 81%Hilbert College has test-optional admissionsTest Scores 25th / 75th PercentileSAT Critical Reading: - / -SAT Math: - / -SAT Writing: - / -Whats a good SAT score?ACT Composite: - / -ACT English: - / -ACT Math: - / -Whats a good ACT score? Hilbert College Description: Located in Hamburg, NY (just south of Buffalo), Hilbert College was established in 1957 by the  Franciscan Sisters of St. Joseph. Hilbert offers 16 Bachelor degree programsincluding accounting, criminal justice, paralegal studies, human services, and forensic science. The schools academics are supported by a 11  to 1 student / faculty ratio, allowing students individualized attention and a unique learning experience. Hilbert also hosts an honors program, available to its top students in all fields. There are a number of student activities to choose from, ranging from honor societies, to athletics, to drama and art clubs, to academic organizations. On the athletic front, the Hilbert College Hawks compete in the NCAA Division III Allegheny Mountain Collegiate Conference. The school fields 13 sports, including mens and womens basketball, golf, lacrosse, soccer, and volleyball. Enrollment (2016): Total Enrollment: 866 (809 undergraduates)Gender Breakdown: 44% Male / 56% Female91% Full-time Costs (2016- 17): Tuition and Fees: $21,300Books: $750 (why so much?)Room and Board: $9,600Other Expenses: $800Total Cost: $32,450 Hilbert College Financial Aid (2015- 16): Percentage of New Students Receiving Aid: 100%Percentage of New Students Receiving Types of AidGrants: 100%Loans: 76%Average Amount of AidGrants: $11,384Loans: $8,146 Academic Programs: Most Popular Majors:  Criminal Justice, Forensic Science, Business Administration, PsychologyWhat major is right for you?  Sign up to take the free My Careers and Majors Quiz at Cappex. Transfer, Graduation and Retention Rates: First Year Student Retention (full-time students): 72%Transfer Out Rate: 35%4-Year Graduation Rate: 38%6-Year Graduation Rate: 43% Intercollegiate Athletic Programs: Mens Sports:  Basketball, Soccer, Volleyball, Track and Field, Baseball, Golf, Lacrosse, Cross CountryWomens Sports:  Basketball, Softball, Volleyball, Track and Field, Soccer, Lacrosse, Cross Country Data Source: National Center for Educational Statistics Hilbert and the Common Application Hilbert College uses the  Common Application. These articles can help guide you: Common Application essay tips and samplesShort answer tips and samplesSupplemental essay tips and samples If You Like Hilbert College, You May Also Like These Colleges: Cazenovia College: Profile  Alfred University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphNiagara University: Profile  SUNY Fredonia: Profile  University of Albany: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphSUNY Oswego: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphPace University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphKeuka College: Profile  Hobart William Smith College: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphSt. John Fisher College: ProfileBinghamton University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphIthaca College: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT Graph Hilbert College Mission Statement: mission statement from  https://www.hilbert.edu/about-hilbert/mission-vision Hilbert College is an independent institution of higher learning that embraces its Catholic Franciscan heritage and values. Students from diverse backgrounds are educated in liberal arts and professional programs to become informed citizens committed to serving and strengthening their communities.

Free Essays on Critical Thinking And Decision Making

To Be or Not To Be (A Novice’s Examination of The Relationship Between Critical Thinking and Decision Making) â€Å"To be, or not to be: that is the question:† (William Shakespeare, Hamlet) Not unlike Hamlet, we face difficult decisions everyday. I spent eight years as a police officer and my decisions affected many people and permanently changed their lives and their futures. Each decision required the use of the critical thinking process to make the right decisions and to uncover the truth. Each decision was an end to a case, an investigation, a radio call or process and critical thinking was the means to the end. Critical Thinking There are many different views and definitions of critical thinking. In my research I discovered the following two definitions of critical thinking by experts in the field. "Critical thinking is the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome. It is used to describe thinking that is purposeful, reasoned and goal directed - the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task. Critical thinking also involves evaluating the thinking process - the reasoning that went into the conclusion we've arrived at the kinds of factors considered in making a decision. Critical thinking is sometimes called directed thinking because it focuses on a desired outcome." Halpern (1996). "Broadly speaking, critical thinking is concerned with reason, intellectual honesty, and open-mindedness, as opposed too emotionalism, intellectual laziness, and closed-mindedness. Thus, critical thinking involves: following evidence where it leads; considering all possibilities; relying on reason rather than emotion; being precise; considering a variety of possible viewpoints and explanations... Free Essays on Critical Thinking And Decision Making Free Essays on Critical Thinking And Decision Making To Be or Not To Be (A Novice’s Examination of The Relationship Between Critical Thinking and Decision Making) â€Å"To be, or not to be: that is the question:† (William Shakespeare, Hamlet) Not unlike Hamlet, we face difficult decisions everyday. I spent eight years as a police officer and my decisions affected many people and permanently changed their lives and their futures. Each decision required the use of the critical thinking process to make the right decisions and to uncover the truth. Each decision was an end to a case, an investigation, a radio call or process and critical thinking was the means to the end. Critical Thinking There are many different views and definitions of critical thinking. In my research I discovered the following two definitions of critical thinking by experts in the field. "Critical thinking is the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome. It is used to describe thinking that is purposeful, reasoned and goal directed - the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task. Critical thinking also involves evaluating the thinking process - the reasoning that went into the conclusion we've arrived at the kinds of factors considered in making a decision. Critical thinking is sometimes called directed thinking because it focuses on a desired outcome." Halpern (1996). "Broadly speaking, critical thinking is concerned with reason, intellectual honesty, and open-mindedness, as opposed too emotionalism, intellectual laziness, and closed-mindedness. Thus, critical thinking involves: following evidence where it leads; considering all possibilities; relying on reason rather than emotion; being precise; considering a variety of possible viewpoints and explanations...

Families Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Families - Essay Example More and more people are now open to having an equal footing in gender relationships, with the man not being â€Å"in charge† of the family. Admittedly there is some rancor due to these changes as well, but there are positive effects of these changing gender relationships on our values. Firstly, due to the fact that women are now also contributing to the economic well being of the family by earning, men have less pressure and stress on them. Men no longer have to cope with being sole bread earners for their families, nor do the families look up to them for their financial well being. This relieves a lot of stress from men, and women are now able to understand what working outside entails. Moreover, due to these changes, men and women are expected to be more open to each other emotionally, as both of them get a better understanding of each other when they share roles and responsibilities on an equal footing. This openness in communication also positively affects child rearing. This ensures, to quite an extent, the emotional and psychological wellbeing of the members of the family, as problems can be discussed more openly and understood much better. Due to these changing gender relationships, children are not told to mold themselves to a pattern, which is preset for them by society. Children have the freedom to decide what role they will adapt once they grow up. Girls are not limited to only household chores, and boys are not told to â€Å"man up† and hide their emotional and psychological trauma. This promotes equality in the household, resulting in better well-adjusted future adults. What is more, as children are not expected to follow a strict gender role, they are freer to express their desires and fears with their parents. Finally, this enables women to see themselves as more than just extensions of the males in their households. They have the freedom to become persons within themselves, and are not bound to anyone due to economic reasons, but

Internal refusal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Internal refusal - Essay Example I would like to inform you that at the moment the company is going through a lot of challenges and, therefore, at the moment we are unable to attend to that request. I really appreciate your creativity and innovativeness by coming up with such a proposal as we know knowledge is power and, therefore, it should always be pursued at all stages in career development. Currently we are opening up a new branch and in addition a lot of funds have been set aside for the setting up of ten automatic teller machines within the state. Therefore, with all these plans in place, it is virtually impossible to set up such an innovative program as it requires quite a considerable amount of funds to establish. As the human resource manager, I would try and talk with the managing director and see what measures can be set up to implement the program in the coming financial year. I would like to let you that your annual appraisal has matured and you can pick it from the accounts department anytime from next week. We are looking forward to your continued

Communication Styles in Different Cultures Essay

Communication Styles in Different Cultures - Essay Example One major difference between our cultures is knowing when handshaking is appropriate. In Australian culture, this is an acceptable way of greeting both males and females. However, in Saudi culture, there are many restrictions in greeting with regards to gender. Lewis noted this in his interactions with people in the Arab world and concluded that being respectful at all times towards male and female Arabs is the best form of communication ( 2001). Personally, I have been in many uncomfortable situations when I was offered a hand by a female friend and I was not completely certain what I was expected to do. In these situations, I was afraid to offend my close friends but was hesitant to do something that is so taboo in my native land. In Australia, handshaking seems to be appropriate between men and women but in Saudi culture, handshaking between different genders is prohibited from due to religious belief. My Australian friend advised me that if shaking a females hand makes me uncomfo rtable, then I should be open and honest about it. I was assured that this would be acceptable and would not be offensive to most Australians. One of the new things that I learned is how to make refusal in a suitable way. I didn't want to be rude with Jonathan but our cultures differ greatly in this respect. In Australian culture, disagreement can be done in a very direct way and can be confrontational. This is not considered rude. However, in Saudi culture, it is best done in an indirect way avoiding any confrontation because the concept of friendship in Arabic culture is different.

Importance Of Privacy Scale Survey Essay Example for Free

Importance Of Privacy Scale Survey Essay A survey is a systematic process by which data is collected from or about people, places, or things with a description, comparison, and/or explanation relating to their knowledge, stance, and behavior. The process is made up of seven different activities: setting objectives in order to collect data, designing the study, preparing an unfailing and official survey mechanism, administering the survey, managing and examining the survey data, and eventually reporting the results. (Fink, 2002) The survey is conducted by inquiry where people give consent to be asked specified questions and they give answers as well. It may be completed orally, in written form, or visually. Surveys are also conducted visually to examine people’s reactions to a specific model. For example, surveys may be conducted to see how people react to the taste of certain juices. It is obvious that most people would not like a bitter juice while others will like juices like lemonade, which is sour, or kool-aid which is often sweet. In this specified survey, it is concerning issues with regard to intrusive measures of privacy in effort of preventing future terrorist attacks. Politicians need to be aware of how the public feels regarding these issues. The wording or phrasing of the questions allows the consenting public to give very direct answers concerning these issues. If the wording were different, the answers may be very vague; therefore, the poll would not obtain the results necessary to make the right improvements to take the essential measures to ensure safety. Also if the right survey instrument is not used, it may manipulate the survey negatively which makes it invalid and useless. It is very important to use the right methodology pertaining to the topic of the survey to acquire accurate results. By wording questions very similar, it allow the surveyor to attain a confirmation of the previous question making the answer more valid and more definite. I used this repetitive strategy for this reason and also to help eliminate bias that is sometimes found in conducting surveys. (â€Å"Opinion Poll†, 2009) The purpose of this survey is to provide the public with very basic questions concerning the approval of taking intrusive measures to aid in the prevention of future terrorist attacks. Politicians and the government alike are eager to know how the public feels about the topic of invading privacy for this reason and in order to obtain that specific information this survey is necessary. Works Cited Fink, A. (2002). The Survey Handbook. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc. Fink, A. (1995). How to Analyze Survey Data (Survey Kit, 8). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc. Opinion poll. (2009, March 27). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 02:39, March 31, 2009, from

cognitive models and theories

cognitive models and theories

Volcanoes Essay -- essays research papers fc

A Look Into Volcanoes I. Introduction Volcano: defined is a mountain or hill formed by the accumulation of materials erupted through one or more openings (called volcanic vents) in the earth's surface. The term volcano can also refer to the vents themselves. Most volcanoes have steep sides, but some can be gently sloping mountains or even flat tablelands, plateaus, or plains. The volcanoes above sea level are the best known, but the vast majority of the world's volcanoes lie beneath the sea, formed along the global oceanic ridge systems that crisscross the deep ocean floor. According to the Smithsonian Institution, 1511 above-sea volcanoes have been active during the past 10,000 years, 539 of them erupting one or more times during written history. On average, 50 to 60 above-sea volcanoes worldwide are active in any given year; about half of these are continuations of eruptions from previous years, and the rest are new. Mount St. Helen Volcanic eruptions in populated regions are a significant threat to peo ple, property, and agriculture. The danger is mostly from fast-moving, hot flows of explosively erupted materials, falling ash, and highly destructive lava flows and volcanic debris flows. In addition, explosive eruptions, even from volcanoes in unpopulated regions, can eject ash high into the atmosphere, creating drifting volcanic ash clouds that pose a serious hazard to airplanes. II. Volcano Formation All volcanoes are formed by the accumulation of magma which is molten rock that forms below the earth's surface. Magma can erupt through one or more volcanic vents, which can be a single opening, a cluster of openings, or a long crack, called a fissure vent. It forms deep within the earth, generally within the upper part of the mantle which is one of the layers of the earth's crust, or less commonly, within the base of the earth's crust. High temperatures and pressures are needed to form magma. The solid mantle or crustal rock must be melted under conditions typically reached at dep ths of 50 to 60 mi. (80 to 100 km) below the earth's surface. Once tiny droplets of magma are formed, they begin to rise because the magma is less dense than the solid rock surrounding it. The processes that cause the magma to rise are poorly understood, but it generally moves upward toward lower pressure regions, squeezing into spaces between minerals within the soli... ...the first blobs of melt. As melting continues other minerals start to melt as well, and the chemistry of the magma changes. From studies like this geologists have determined that the early stages of a Hawaiian volcano's life is generated by magmas derived from only small degrees of partial melting (such as only 5% of the source melting and the rest staying behind). On the other hand, when the volcano really gets going (such as at Kilauea and Mauna Loa), the percentage of source rock that melts to produce the magma is perhaps as high as 20%. There are many other ways in which chemistry is used in volcanology, including the studies of volcanic gases, crater lakes, and trying to determine the temperatures that lava had at the time they were erupted even long after the eruption has ended. Bibliography Bibliography 1999 Microsoft Encarta; Volcanoes 1980 USGS; www.vulcan.wr.usgs.gov 2000 Volcano World; http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/frequent-questions/grp13/question1544.html 1980-2000 USGS; www.vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/photo/volcanoes/MSH/framework.html 1993-2000 Microsoft Corporation; various volcano media 2000 FEMA; www.fema.gov/library/volcanof.htm Word Count: 2186

Intelligence Testing Article

There is not one precise definition of intelligence. But, the idea of intelligence can be seen as a cluster of mental abilities that has the ability to obtain and use knowledge, exhibit problem-solving skills, and to excel at a variety of tasks (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Intelligence is a necessary factor that allows one to adapt to one’s environment. But outside of the dominion of cultural context, intelligence cannot be really explained; this is because questions on intelligence tests that are scored often do not have the same meaning in every culture (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Howard Gardner’s theory proposed his own view of intelligence in which he claimed that seven intelligences work independently but concurrently, completing one another. The PASS theory, a basis for the Cognitive Assessment System, features three functional units. Both these theories have a significant impact within psychology and smooth out the loose ends of extensive cross-cultural cracks in calculating tools. Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Howard Gardner offered an alternative understanding of intelligence, which added to the traditional definition; it incorporated three-dimensional relations, mathematics, music, linguistic ability, and interpersonal knowledge (Kaufman, 2013). Gardner (1989), defined intelligence as â€Å"the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting† (P. 4). His definition acknowledged mathematical and verbal skills. Gardner’s theory outlines seven intelligences; linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, bodily, musical, intrapersonal, and two personal intelligences of social feelings and intentions of others. According to the theory of multiple intelligences, the intelligences work simultaneously, accompanying one another while an individual learns, develops, improves, and masters life skills. Gardner argued for the cultural and biological basis by emphasizing the outcomes of neurobiological research, which maintenances knowledge as a result of basic function capability and changes. Gardner not only had his biological origin for multiple intelligences, he also believes that culture plays an important role in the development of intelligence than traditionally acknowledged (Gardner, 1983). Some cultures value and preserve certain types of intelligences, especially if they help with the improvement and maintenance of a culture. The more appreciated a skill is, the more one is driven to know and thrive in that particular discipline. A particular intelligence can be very much developed due to a culture’s value, while others may not develop or develop hardly at all (Gardner, 1983). PASS Theory The PASS theory of intelligence proposes that cognition is organized in three functional units that are applied widely to IQ tests. According to Luria’s idea of this model, PASS stands for Planning, Attention-Arousal, and Simultaneous and Successive model of processing (Kaufman, 2013). According to this model, the first functional unit’s job is to focus and sustain attention. The second function is the attention process, which maintains alertness and arousal levels, and warrants focus on important stimuli. The final functional unit accepts and stores information with consecutive and concurrent processing. PASS theory challenges what is the foundation of all cognitive processes; G-based theories. G-based theories of human intelligence say that â€Å"human intellectual functioning is best described as a unitary class† (Das & Abbott, 1995). The challenge comes from the fact that g-theory believes that neuropsychological research that establishes the brain is made up of diverse codependent organisms (Das & Abbott, 1995). The PASS theory seeks to explain intelligence in a more dynamically appropriate sense and to overcome gaps from the traditional IQ test. IQ tests are based on outdates theories that rely on correlations between the IQ scores, but not taking into consideration that intelligence is evolving and unsolidified. Intelligence Testing The reason that traditional IQ testing is not reliable is because they are built on the concept that intelligence is mainly methodical and fixed. Gardner believed in calculating intellectual tendencies at an early age because he did not believe intelligences are permanent (Morgan, 1996). As cultures vary, they reach intelligence at different levels and they may see certain skills and knowledge of more value than others (Kaufman, 2013). Gardner’s theory is flexible to the dissimilarities in intelligences cross-culturally and is genuine in measuring intelligence (Morgan, 1996). The PASS theory emphasizes on developments, rather than intelligence and capability helps with being familiar cross-culturally, and is rather reasonable as oppose to general IQ testing (Das & Abbott, 1995). General IQ testing and similar tests stress the importance of language and mathematical abilities,; this is not exactly accurate cross-cultural measurement (Kaufman, 2013). Conclusion The unfairness of intelligence testing is submerged. The measurements of these tests are reliable, but only to a small fraction of the population cross-culturally. Both theories mentioned smooth out the bumps of widespread gaps in effective measuring tools when it comes to cross-cultural population. Different cultures cannot be effectively measured by traditional IQ and similar psychological tests. When the correlations of social success and IQ scores are matched, they show an inaccurate picture of bias constructed with things like sexism and racism. The measurement of intelligence must take into account the essential cultural perspective of knowledge and learning.

love in the gift of the magi Essays

love in the gift of the magi Essays love in the gift of the magi Essay love in the gift of the magi Essay Love is of great concern not only for the young but for all people. As Khalil Gibran said that Life without love is like a tree without blossoms or fruit. Indeed, love appears everywhere and at any moment, it always exists in the depth of each person. True love doesnt happen right away; its an ever-growing process. It develops after youve gone through many ups and downs, when youve suffered together, cried together, laughed together (Ricardo Montalban). As a typical example, love between Jim and Della in The gift of the Magi written by O. Henry is worth thinking about. It is love of deep understanding and great sacrifice for each other. At the beginning of the story is Della flopping down on the shabby with great disappointment. All she has is Just one dollar and eighty-seven cents saved by bargaining the grocer and the vegetable man. However the only thing she cared for is how to give her husband whom she spent her best love for a Christmas present. To Della, Jim is the most precious person and she could not have lived through Christmas without giving Jim a present. Afterward, she had her beautiful hair cut and sold it to get enough money to buy something fine and rare and sterling that is worth the love she has for him. And that is a platinum chain for his watch. This not only displays her love, but also great sacrifice for the love. Ironically, Jim sold the watch to buy Della a comb at the same time because he knew that she wanted to have it for a long time and that beautiful comb would be suitable for her great hair. They always care for each other, they know exactly what the other needs and wants, hich shows how much deeply they understand each other. Additionally, Both Jim and Della have two most important and priced possessions-Dellas hair which is long and beautiful and Jims watch which has been a family possession passed down through generations from fathers to their sons. Because of their financial constraints they have no choice but to sacrifice the only possessions that they treasure in their lives for the sake of expression their love. There was no greater sacrifice that would have been offered apart from what the two did. Their gifts carry not only the sincere, strong and deep love but the considerable sacrifice for each other. It is understandable that the deep love between Jim and Della makes great impression on the readers. Their love does not consist in gazing at each other, but in looking outward together in the same direction (Antoine de Saint Exupery). Despite the risks, humiliation and costs of the sacrifice each of them is ready to lose what they have to express their love, which makes love between them like a eternally burning fire love in the gift of the magi By hoanglachy

10 Phrases Youre Probably Saying Wrong

10 Phrases Youre Probably Saying Wrong 1. Prostrate CancerThis one goes hand in hand (er†¦ well†¦ goes along with) â€Å"anticdote.† Prostate cancer is experienced by thousands of individuals annually. Prostrate (note the â€Å"r†) has to do with being flat on the ground.   2. First-Come, First-ServeI know, I know, you’re probably well aware that it’s actually first served and it’s just verbal shorthand. But†¦ prove to everyone else that you know it, and you just might help them realize they don’t want to be asking the first people there to serve everyone else.  3. Sneak PeakFun with homophones! Peak, Peek, and Pique are three different words. A peak is the top of a mountain. A peek is a quick look (what you’re sneaking). And pique is what you storm away in a fit of, or perhaps something â€Å"piqued your interest.†Ã‚  4. Deep-SeededThis one sounds like it could be correct! Something planted very deeply as a seed would have roots and be hard to era dicate! But when it comes to language, logic is sometimes the great betrayer. What you’re actually thinking of is â€Å"Deep seated†, and it means firmly established.  5. Extract RevengeIf revenge were a potion and someone had stolen yours and you needed to retrieve it by squeezing, what you’d doing is exacting revenge.  6. Shoe-inThis is the location of your Birkenstocks, right? Because â€Å"shoo-in† is a guarantee.  7. Emigrated toIn this current state of difficulty for immigrants and emigrants alike, the least we can all do- I mean the absolute bare minimum- is to learn that you immigrate to a place, and emigrate from a place. Let the origin or the destination guide whether you emphasize it.  8. Baited BreathThink of it this way- what do fisherpeople use for bait? It all smells gross, right? You wouldn’t want that on your breath. But you might hold it for a minute if the bait got near you- in other words it would have abated. Thusly, ba ted breath is breath that is held in anticipation.  9. 10 Items or LessThis one drives me batty in checkout lines all over the country. Less is for liquids. If you can measure it by moving your thumb and forefinger closer or apart, it’s less. If it’s anything you can count (like the items in your grocery cart), for â€Å"not as many,† it’s fewer.  10. Over 50 billion servedThough we could parse who they’ve served and how well they’ve done it, what McDs means is more than. Think of the cow jumping over (i.e. above) the moon. She probably saw more than 50 billion stars up there!

History of Management Thought Revision Essay Example

History of Management Thought Revision Essay Example History of Management Thought Revision Paper History of Management Thought Revision Paper rewarded for teaching and developing your employees. c. Gantts emphasis on the importance of morale. d. The Gantt Chart steadily evolved into a valuable tool for scheduling (planning) and controlling work. (1)Widely used during World War I (2)Became an international management technique. (3)A forerunner of subsequent planning and controlling techniques such as major milestones, PERT, CPM. e. The New Machine a group headed by Gantt to promote the idea that engineers should be industrial leaders. Social responsibility Gantts concern that business should not lose sight of its service role in the economy. C. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 1. Frank worked in the construction trades and called his job design motion study. Independent of, but influenced by, Taylor. 2. Lillian our First Lady of Management for her accomplishments with her husband as well as after Franks death. 3. As partners, they made numerous contributions: a. Franks study of bricklaying; motion study; a white list to identify top workers in an appraisal system; and a bonus to employees for suggestions. b. Motion and fatigue study a joint effort to reduce fatigue and improve productivity. (You might suggest that one or more of your students read â€Å"Cheaper by the Dozen† by F. B. Gilbreth, Jr. and Ernestine G. Carey. â€Å"Cheaper by the Dozen† has appeared as a movie twice: the first had Clifton Webb play Frank and Myrna Loy portrayed Lillian; a more recent release has Steve Martin as Frank and Bonnie Hunt as Lillian. If class members can find both of these movies, a comparison and evaluation can be made- and a lively discussion. c. Other contributions: (1)Therbligs (2)Motion pictures with special lighting to study micromotions. Note that Frank offered this technique to Taylor. (3)Process charts to study the flow of work through the shop. (4)Promotion planning. (5) Pioneering work with handicapped employees. d. Psychology of Management Lillians original, but not final, Ph. D. dissertation. It was not industrial psychology, per se, but the psychological intent of scientific management. e. Lillian’s efforts to bring Gilbreth’s motion study and Taylor’s time study are worth mentioning. D. Harrington Emerson 1. He worked largely independent of Frederick Taylor but they corresponded and he was aware of Taylors ideas. . Emersons ideas focused on: a. The lack of organization, in Emersons view, was a major problem. He proposed the line-staff organization as a way of bringing staff knowledge to assist the line managers. b. Emersons line-staff idea was similar to Taylors desire to use the knowledge of functional foreman, but an improvement since it did not split the chain of command. c. Emerson t ook Taylors idea of setting performance standards and applied this to cost accounting. Standards could be established for what the costs should be, rather than estimating costs from previous records. d. Incentives Emerson provided 120% wages for 100% performance (the standard) and that increased if the worker produced more. e. Of Emersons numerous principles: clearly defined ideals (objectives), participative decision making, and the proper use of staff stand out as the more unique of his ideas. f. Emerson established a successful consulting practice and sought to improve ethical practices among consultants. E. Morris Cooke 1. Cooke worked closely with Taylor and became one of the four individuals Taylor considered his disciples (others were Gantt, Barth, and H. King Hathaway). 2. Cookes early work developed when Taylor sent him on various consulting assignments: a. In education, where he felt that college administration was inefficient. b. In government, where Cooke became Director of Public Works for the City of Philadelphia and successfully implemented scientific management. 3. Collaborated with Taylor in preparing Principles of Scientific Management and received the royalties for his efforts. 4. In his later work, Cooke became interested in getting the leaders of organized labor to work within scientific management ideas. a. Suggested that management needed to tap labors brains. b. Worked with labor leaders in gaining a better feeling about union-management cooperation. c. Served Presidents F. D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman in government positions. Chapter 9 The Human Factor: Preparing the Way This chapter has one purpose but many sub-topics. The common element is the emphasis on the human factor as it appeared in personnel management, psychology/ industria l psychology, sociology/industrial sociology, and employee participation in decision making as manifested in the trade union movement and industrial relations, union-management cooperation, and employee representation plans. A. Personnel Management: A Dual Heritage 1. One part of the beginnings of personnel management may be found in the industrial betterment/welfare movement. a. This movement found its basis in the Social Gospel and grew out of a concern for improving industrial conditions. b. A number of companies employed a welfare secretary to advise management. Their duties were many, and in some cases appeared to be paternalistic. c. Many, though not all, of these secretaries were females, perhaps because of their experience in vocational guidance or social work, or perhaps because some of their duties resembled a role stereotype of what a woman did i. e. menus, handling illnesses, etc. 2. Scientific management emphasized improved personnel selection, placement, wage plans, and other matters that involved employee welfare. Taylor had described this role but it was others who advanced personnel management. a. Mary Gilson would be one example of the scientific management viewpoint. b. Also Jane William s at Plimpton Press. c. The Henry Gantt/Elizabeth Briscoe clash at Bancroft Mills relates similarities and differences between the welfarists and those of scientific management. d. Henry Ford and his $5 per day minimum is worth mentioning, as well as his sociological department. (Ask the class what Fords advisers did does this sound like a modern social worker? Also, why was the sociological department changed? ) B. Psychology 1. This section begins with a plutology quote (1863) which resembles A. H. Maslows (1943) hierarchy of needs theory. The purpose is to show that this early insight came from deduction and introspection, not empirical study. 2. The pseudosciences also reflect this introspection, yet some of these, such as graphology and astrology, are claimed today to have merit. Students may comment, and accurately so, that at this point in history these were considered scientific and not pretenders to science. Phrenology is my favorite, especially if you pretend to be an on campus recruiter. ) 3. Industrial Psychology a. Wilhelm Wundt pioneered scientific psychology. b. But more importantly, Hugo Munsterberg applied this scientific approach to industrial problems. c. Munsterberg sought (1)the best possible worker (2)the best possible work (3)the best possible effect d. He advocated (1)tests for worker selection 2)research in the learning process in training (to me, this sounds like an early concept of what we would call transfer of learning theory). e. Others who were early in the field of industrial psychology are mentioned briefly in the text. (They are not emphasized, but you may find a favorite here to assign for your class. ) (1)Charles S. Myers (2)Walter Dill Scott (3)Cecil A. Mace (4)Morris S. Viteles C. The Social Person This section involves the antecedents of industrial sociology as well as sociological theory. (Again, different individuals and contributions are open to your choice. 1. Whiting Williams obviously a favorite of mine, and a person whose ideas have been long neglected. a. A white-collar personnel director who put on the clothes and guise of a worker to study work first hand. That is, a participant-observer. b. Emphasized the centrality of work (before the work of Bob Dubin and George W. England). c. Job defines social status as well as a persons place in the work situation. d. The workplace is a part of a larger social system. e. Saw earnings as a matter of social comparison influencing how a person viewed himself relative to others. My feeling is that Williams should be seen as the originator of equity theory. ) f. Workers mainspring was to be found in their relations with others (is this or is this not a pre-Hawthorne view of human relations? ) g. The Eleventh Commandment Thou shalt not take thy neighbor for granted still good advice. h. My conclusion is that industrial sociology began with Williams, and that the Social Gospel influenced his thought. 2. Sociological theory a. Emile Durkheim (1)anomie normlessness (2)mechanical societies were dominated by a collective consciousness. 3)organic societies were characterized by interdependence and the division of labor, leading to anomie. (Note that some modern writers use other definitions for mechanical and organic. ) (4)Durkheims thinking influenced the human relationists view of the need for social solidarity. b. Vilfredo Pareto (Not one of my favorites as I find his ideas on social systems clouded in jargon. I mention him, however, for : (1) The Pareto Circle that influenced the Harvard version of human relations. (2)Paretos influence on Chester Barnard and cooperative systems. . Social behaviorism may be worth mentioning because of the notion of the social person, the beginning of social psychology, and C. H. Cooleys looking glass self, a very interesting way of looking at the formation of self-efficacy, personality development, and a host of other ideas. d. Gestalt psychology definitely deserves a mention. A number of persons who we will encounter later, such as Mary Follett and Kurt Lewin, were gestaltists and the notion prevails in much of our modern thinking about group dynamics and sociotechnical systems. D. Employee participation in Decision Making This section examines three paths to give employees a â€Å"voice† in the firm or organization: 1. Through membership in a union that would represent the workers’. a. John R. Commons is a substantial figure here. Perhaps the first to use the phrase â€Å"human resources† and considered the â€Å"Father of Industrial Relations. b. Commons was not anti-scientific management because it worked in some firms, but felt workers needed a say-so in the workplace. c. Other economists were interested in â€Å"applied economics† issues such as turnover, job analysis, etc. . The position of Samuel Gompers and the AF of L was to achieve gains for organized labor through bargaining power, not productivity. Gompers said more, more, and then more was what labor wanted. 2. Union-management cooperation a. Morris Cooke, Ordway Tead, and Robert Valentine were examples of those who were trying to reformulate what labor felt was the uny ielding, no union, position of scientific management. The revised emphasis was to be on consent: b. Union-management cooperation plans began when union membership was in decline in the early 1920s. Unions agreed to accept scientific management if they were involved by electing representatives and could bargain about wages, hours, working conditions, and so on. 3. Employee representation plans a. These did not involve unions but the workers elected representatives and participated through shop councils and committees. Unions did not like these plans (no membership dues, perhaps). b. Commons studied 30 of these â€Å"industrial government† or industrial democracy plans. c. Henry Dennison’s plan is noteworthy for its progressiveness. d. The Sage Foundation study indicated most employee representation plans were progressive and improved labor-management relations. (In Part Three we will see the demise of union-management cooperation and employee representation plans with the passage of the National Labor Relations Act. ) Chapter 10 The Emergence of Management and Organization Theory This chapter discusses the work of two major management theorists, Henri Fayol and Max Weber. Fayol provided the basis for the modern approach to general management theory through the management process. Weber conceptualized bureaucracy to provide a formal approach to organization theory. A. Henri Fayol 1. Fayol was an engineer who rose in the management hierarchy to become the Director (CEO) of a large-scale, fully integrated enterprise formed his conception of management as the general activity of integrating the functions of the firm in order to intelligently use resources to attain the objectives of the firm. In the opening pages, note how he built his theory from his experiences. 2. While Frederick Taylor was more production oriented, Fayols viewpoint was that of general management. . Fayol drew certain conclusions from his experiences: a. Managerial abilities differed from technical ones, and the success of the firm depended to a greater degree on good managers than good technicians. b. Fayol felt that every organization required management regardless of whether it was commercial, industry, politics, religion, war etc. I feel there is much misunderstanding about what Fayol intended. This statement of his suggests the universality of management in that this activity is necessary in all organizations. It does not mean, at least to me, that managers are universal, that any manager can manage any organization. (This point is arguable and merits class discussion. ) c. Managers needed certain qualities, knowledge, and experience. d. Managerial abilities become more important as a person moves up in the hierarchy; technical abilities are less essential for upper level managers. (I like to point out to my students that most CEOs still have a fond place in their heart for their technical specialties engineering, chemistry, whatever even though they must decide for the firm as a whole. e. Management could be taught in schools and universities but was not because of the absence of management theory. (Theory has many meanings for individuals so you might ask your students to give their definition and compare that with Fayols. ) 4. Fayols Principles of Management (This is one of those areas where controversy can thrive some maintain that management principles is an oxymoron. My approach is to stress his disclaimer that there is nothing rigid or absolute in management and that Fayols principles were guides, lighthouses, but not absolutes nor universals. Since he has 14 principles, I do not try to cover them all but stress those below. ) a. Division of labor he appears rather traditional here regarding work design, but note the job enlargement he practiced in the Commentry coal mine. b. Authority the point here is his distinction between formal authority, the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience, and personal authority which was a compound of intelligence, experience, moral worth, ability to lead and so forth. Fayol was aware of the need to combine and complement the authority of position with leadership qualities. c. Unity of command standard, but worth a reminder for the students. d. Unity of direction good advice to a lot of organizations. e. Centralization note that this does not mean that all decisions are made by top level management but finding where decisions should be made depending on the factors Fayol mentions. f. The gangplank, a means for providing lateral communications. Fayols French for this was passerelle which translates as a bridge, foot-bridge, or gangway. Gangplank was Constance Storrs translation for passerelle but I am often reminded that gangplank is also what the pirates made you walk if you were behaving badly! ) g. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. Put this in a contemporary context by asking students for examples of persons who use their position of authority to serve their self-interest rather than the interests of the firmâ€⠄¢s employees, shareholders, etc. 5. Fayols Elements of Management (This is another area that is plagued by terminology. Most introductory management texts use some version of Fayols description of what managers did, but the labels are different. ) a. Planning also could be translated as foresight, but very basic to Fayols theory: (1)Plans depended on the firms resources, work in process, and future trends that could not be predetermined. (Note that Fayols ideas resemble what would be called a strategic audit. ) (2)Plans needed to have the characteristics of unity, continuity, flexibility, and precision. 3)Long range planning certainly a unique idea for his time but a valuable contribution in the evolution of strategic management. b. Organizing Fayol included both the design of the organization and the staffing job of the manager in this element (I tell my class that organizational design is like developing the plot and roles in a drama, while staffing is selecting and rehearsing individuals to fill those roles. Try it, and let me know if it works for you. ) (1)Structure of the organization had to be consistent with the objectives, resources, and requirements of the firm. 2)Functional and scalar growth (these are described, but you may wish to review these concepts so you can explain Fayols span of control ideas. ) (3)Span of control relatively narrow at the top, but greater at lower levels, according to Fayol. (4)Staff (advisory personnel, not to be confused, as it often is, with staffing. No wonder our students struggle with the language of management. ) On the subject of staff, Fayol disagreed with Taylor; that is, line managers needed staff advice but not through functional foremen advising workers. 5)Staffing (today we call it personnel or human resource management) involved selection, evaluation, and training of personnel. c. Command: Fayols term for directing, leading, supervising, actuating, or whatever. d. Coordination: harmonizing the activities of the organization. e. Control: checking on performance to identify and make corrections, if necessary. 6. The author concludes that Fayol was a â€Å"strategist† before that term became popular. Discuss the pros and cons of Fayol as using strategic management skills. (Fayol spent relatively little time discussing command, coordination, and control. The point I stress is that planning, organizing [and staffing] set the stage for where we are going and when and how we intend to get there; then these plans, people, and resources are activated, led, motivated, and coordinated; and as our information system brings us performance data, the control element enables management to renew the elements by replanning, or reorganizing, or whatever has been indicated by our control system. Thus, management is a continuing process, not a neat set of discrete elements/functions that are performed without consideration of the other elements. ) B. Max Weber and Bureaucracy (To begin, ask the class what bureaucracy means. There is a high probability that this idea will be associated with rules, impersonality, inefficiency, and catch-22 situations. This opens the door for what Weber intended. ) 1. Webers Germany was characterized by cartels which limited competition; his interest in the capitalistic spirit (from Chapter 2) led him to ask if a market oriented society could operate large organizations on some rational, systematic basis? A good discussion point might be the quote from Weber about â€Å"rational capitalism† versus â€Å"greed. Is capitalism and its market system a â€Å"rational† way to allocate resources? 2. Bureaucracy as theory a. It was management by the office, not by person. b. It was an ideal, the pure form of organization but this did not mean that it was the most desirable. c. Weber is suggested as the founder of Organization Theory. 3. Authority Weber had three pure types: a. Rational legal b. Traditional c. Charismatic (Have your students describe each type. Then, ask if organizations can operate best on the rational-legal basis, as Weber argued. Why? Or, why not? ) 4. Elements of Bureaucracy Ask the students to review these and apply them to a university, business, or other organization. 5. Weber argued that bureaucracy was, technically, capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency. If so, why do we think of bureaucracy as undesirable? Chapter 11 Scientific Management in Theory and Practice Our purpose in this chapter is to examine the impact of scientific management on management education, on international management, and on other disciplines. Second, we see the spread of management ideas beyond the factory and the emergence of general management. The chapter is replete with names so suggestions will be made below where different emphases might be placed. ) A. The Study and Practice of Scientific Management 1. Education for Industrial Management (This is one area you may wish to summarize. The main points are: a. Early in the 20th century, the teaching of management in colleges focused on production management and was based on Frederick Taylors writings. b. Daniel Nelsons observation that scientific management gave credibility to the study of business. Business schools were considered by educators of that time (and maybe today) as too vocational. . Scientific Management Internationally a. The management revolution spread abroad as a product of the U. S. A. b. In France, industrialists tended to implement scientific management to increase productivity without following Taylors advice. Taylorisme became a dirty word for French workers. c. In Britain, note the differing opinions on scientific management. d. In Poland, Adamieckis harmonogram was similar to PERT. e. In the U. S. S. R. (which at the time was the Soviet Union rather than as it stands now): (1)Lenin advocated Taylorism, but little came of this in practice. 2)Gilbreths ideas on motion study probably had more influence than Taylors ideas. (3)Taylors idea of a mental revolution ran counter to the Bolshevik distrust of capitalism. (4)Walter Polakov was successful in getting the U. S. S. R. to use Gantt Charts for their five year plans. f. In Japan, Taylors ideas gained widespread acceptance. The Japanese liked the idea of harmony, cooperation, and mutual interest. What modern scholars call Japanese style management had its roots in the work of Taylor. 3. Industrial Practice (Beau coup names here so select as you see fit. Briefly: a. The Hoxie study highlighted the difference between the notions of scientific management and how well they were implemented. Note, however, that the Hoxie report was a pro-union document and biased toward labor unions. Also, see John Frey’s later doubts about Hoxie himself. Also noteworthy are John R. Commons’ comments about why the Hoxie report was not included in the final report of the Industrial Relations Commission. b. Studies by C. B. Thompson and Daniel Nelson provide more accurate assessments of scientific management. c. It is worth emphasizing that Nelson concluded that scientific management had a strong positive correlation with industrial efficiency. Also, scientific management was associated with growth not stagnation in most industries. d. Scientific management was associated with batch shop production and labor intensive operations. But in capital intensive industries, or automobile assembly lines, scientific management was less useful. e. Evidence from the U. S. Bureau of Census disputes the notion that scientific management â€Å"de-skilled labor. † Rather, the number of skilled and unskilled workers was increasing during this period. Scientific management has been criticized for de-skilling jobs and your author and the employment data from this period suggests this has been perpetuated as an untruth. B. Emerging General Management 1. Scientific management and other disciplines (for your selection): a. Public administration b. Marketing c. Accounting and standard costing d. The crossover chart as a forerunner of break-even point. e. Flexible budgeting. f. J. O. McKinsey is an unsung pioneer for the business policy/strategy field. His influence on Bill Newman will be discussed later. 2. Early organization theory (very useful if this is an emphasis in your class): A brief summary of some previous notions of organization, line-staff, organization charts, etc. b. Russell Robb is the focal point of this section. His ideas involved: (1)Organizations differed as to goals sought as well as means to those goals. (2)These organizational differences suggested there was no one best way to organize. 3. DuPont and General Motors (I place more emphasis here because of the very innovative things that were happening during that period at DuPont and G. M. ) a. Psychological tests for personnel selection. b. Donaldson Brown and Return on Investment (ROI) as R = T x P. This became the basis of the DuPont Chart system that is still in use. c. William C. Durant is an interesting study, but briefly examined here. He was great at building a firm, but not noted as an outstanding manager. d. Alfred P. Sloan, Jr. and the creation of centralized policy, control, and review while decentralizing administration and operations. e. The use, by both G. M. and DuPont, of the multidivisional structure. Organized around product divisions, these divisions could be decentralized for operations and performance could be measured by ROI (when we speak of the M-form organization, here are its origins). 4. Business Policy and Philosophy (again, numerous ideas to consider): a. Arch W. Shaw and the beginning of a business policy course. b. The problem or case method of instruction borrowed from legal education. c. A. H. Church and his distinction between what we would call policy formulation and implementation. d. Oliver Sheldon and a philosophy of management built on the efficiency values of scientific management with the ethics of service to the community. Chapter 12 Scientific Management in Retrospect This chapter examines the scientific management era in light of its economic, technological, social, and political environment. The student should see how the ideas of managing shaped and were shaped by changing environmental factors. A. The Economic Environment 1. The U. S. A. was in transition from an agrarian to an industrial nation. In this period of growth, scientific management provided a means whereby a better utilization of resources could occur. 2. The U. S. work force was very diverse with immigrants from many lands. See the data for the Nation and the example of workers at Ford Motor. 3. Compare Taylor’s â€Å"mental revolution† with the â€Å"mutual gains strategy† of today. 4. The U. S. orker prospered, both in wages, real wages (purchasing power), and reduced hours of work. (See the data for 1865-1890 and 1890-1921. ) 5. More employees were in management with the addition of staff specialists. This growth in the managerial hierarchy made it more critical to plan, organize, etc. 6. Alfred Chandlers rationalization of resource utilization describes well the needs of industry during this era. The ideas of the scientific management pioneers fitted these needs. 7. Industrial efficiency was increasing, partially due to scientific management (see the data on productivity). B. Technology and New Horizons . A substantial number of today’s Fortune 500 companies started during this period. 2. New manufacturing processes in steel and metal-working. 3. Transportation advances by automobiles, aircraft, canal and bridge construction. 4. Emerging energy sources in petroleum and electricity. 5. Assembly line developments at Ford Motor. 6. Office work was reshaped by the mimeograph for copying, the typewriter, carbon paper, Hollerith’s punch card, and visual means of data presentation such as Gantt Charts. C. The Social Environment 1. Horatio Alger, Jr. characterized the success ethic of U. S. enterprise. 2. Scientific management ideas were consonant with the social values of self-directing, high need for achievement, individuals. 3. Change came as the Western frontier closed; Bill Scott called this the collision effect, which would lead to a transition period of individualism being replaced by a social ethic (coming in Part Three). 4. The Social Gospel described briefly here at the risk of repeating previous material. C. The Political Environment 1. The political articulation of the Social Gospel was the Populist-Progressive Movement. 2. Scientific management appealed to the Progressives, especially Morris Cooke. An increasing regulation of business during this time overcame the inadequacies of the earlier Sherman Act. 4. Check the tax rates they are a good way to capture a feeling for this era of relatively limited government. Part Three The Social Person Era Chapter 13 The Hawthorne Studies The purpose of this chapter is to describe the studies at the Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric, then a subsidiary of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. The social person was not invented by these studies, but was elevated and brought to wider recognition by those who interpreted the results. The interesting thing about these studies is how they have been publicized, misinterpreted, praised, and criticized over these many years since the event. Each of us will bring some of our views in when teaching this chapter and it is interesting to find that the issues of Hawthorne have not been resolved but continue to generate articles and presentations. I have used the microfilm records of these studies and I am indebted to Chuck Wrege, Ron Greenwood, and Al Bolton for their seminal work. A. The Studies Begin 1. The original research issue was the effect of workplace illumination on worker productivity. Those who came initially to Hawthorne were electrical engineers from MIT. a. After establishing performance baselines in three departments, the researchers varied the level of illumination. Their conclusion: illumination appeared to have no influence on output. b. Another attempt was made with a control group and a variable group, placed in separate buildings. Again: in this case output went up in both groups. c. The illumination research was abandoned in 1927, but one of the researchers, Charles E. Snow, concluded there were too many variables and the psychology of the human individual could have been the most important one. The Relay Assembly Test Room a. The studies could have been trashed at this point, but Homer Hibarger and George Pennock pushed for further study. Pennock had an excellent insight: supervision was a better explanation. b. The participants were volunteers, knew the objectives of the study, and were observed for a short period in their regular department prior to going to a separate room with their observer. You may wish to indicate to your students that two of the original participants were replaced about 8 months into the experiment. This became an issue which is discussed in Chapter 17. A number of changes were introduced: (1)The incentive payment plan was changed such that the relay assembly group was rewarded on their output rather than on the output of the larger relay assembly department. Note that the participants were told that they could make more money under this arrangement this point will come into play later when various interpretations are made of why output increased. (2)Rest periods were introduced. (3)After 8 months, two operators quit and two new ones selected. (4)Work-day and work-week changes. (5)Lunch and refreshments were provided by the company. . Over a year after the studies began, all of these privileges, except the small group payment plan, were removed. While output varied, the overall trend was increased output. 3. Clair Turner and an early interpretation of the rise in output: a. The small group resulting in more esprit de corps. b. The style of supervision: the participants’ remarks are worth noting. c. Increased earnings: average wages went from $16 to $28-50 per week while in the test room. d. The novelty of the experiment. c. The attention given to the operators by others. 4. A second relay assembly group was formed by Clair Turner in an effort to test the pay for performance effects. Average earnings per week had increased significantly. a. The second relay group was formed and taken from the large group payment plan to the small group one. Initially, output went up and then leveled off. Note that this study lasted only 9 weeks. Then, this group was returned to the original payment plan, output dropped (and that was the end of the second group). b. Mica splitters had always been on individual pay incentives and this group was studied for 14 months. In this group, average hourly output went up during this period. Turner concluded that pay incentives were one factor, but not the only one, although it was of appreciable importance. (Chapter 17 provides a critique of the studies but my preference is to present and discuss Chapter 13 without reference to the criticisms. When we get to Chapter 17, we discuss the various interpretations of the studies and tie it all together. Other instructors may choose to tie 13 and 17 together in the discussion. The outcome should be the same. ) 5. The Interviewing Program a. Snow and Hibarger started asking the workers directed questions about their feelings. b. Elton Mayo made a contribution by changing the interviewing program to a nondirective approach. He felt that supervisors need to listen more. c. With the nondirective approach the length of the interviews and the information gathered increased: (1)There appeared to be a cathartic effect. After a worker complained, follow-up interviews revealed that the complaint was gone. The workers felt better even though no change in conditions had occurred. (2)Fact and sentiment had to be separated. (3)Two levels of complaints (a)Manifest, i. e. what the employee said. (b)Latent, the psychological content of the complaint. 4)Complaints were symptoms to be explored. (5)Pessimistic reveries (Mayos phrase) could be reduced if supervisors were concerned and listened to their employees. Thus, according to Mayo, pessimistic reveries would be negative attitudes held by employees that could interfere with their performance. 6. The Bank Wiring Room a. Concerned observation, but not intervention, with male workers assembling switches for central office switchboards. Note the supervisors’ objections before the study began. b. Restriction of output was a surprising finding even though this practice had been described by others. c. Workers had established an output norm that was lower than managements standard or the bogey. d. In the informal organization, there were two cliques, each having norms about appropriate in-group behavior, such as the practice of binging. e. Researchers found that the work groups: (1)Deliberately restricted output (2)Smoothed out production (3)Developed intragroup disciplinary methods. f. Some workers were isolates, not in a clique, because of various factors. g. Rules for clique membership: (1)Working too fast, a rate buster. (2)Working too slowly, a rate chiseler. (3)Do not squeal on a member of your group. 4)Do not act officious or be socially distant. h. Factory as a social organization; work groups served to protect the workers within their group, and to protect the group from outsiders. The workers viewed: (1)Technologists and managers as following a logic of efficiency which interfered with group activities. (2)Workers were apprehensive of authority and followed a logic of sentiments which reflected their feelings and attitudes toward outsiders. B. Human Relations, Leadership, and Motivation 1. The Hawthorne effect: part of the research and human relations folklore for years. Allegedly, the findings were biased because the experimenters became personally involved in the social-work situation. a. Theresa Layman, one of the participants, rebutted this; so did Don Chipman, one of the observer experimenters; and so did Clair Turner, one of the experimenters. b. The Hawthorne effect is widely referenced, but is a dubious explanation of the Hawthorne results. 2. Mayo felt â€Å"pessimistic reveries were one type of blockage which arose out of personal, social, and industrial problems and became manifest in apprehension of authority, restriction of output, etc. . Anomie, borrowed by Mayo from Emile Durkheim to describe the break-up of traditional society, leaving people without norms. 4. Leadership, in the view of Mayo and Roethlisberger, needed strengthening by social and human skills for the leader (note my feeling that Mayo and F. W. Taylor sought the same goal of collaboration and cooperation but differed in means). a. Influenced by Chester Barnard, Mayo co ncluded that authority had to be based on social skills in securing cooperation. b. Management needed to focus more on building group integrity and solidarity. c. First line supervisors were particularly important in good worker-manager relations. 5. Motivation in the human relations literature evolved and became more Mayo and Roethlisbergers advocacy than based on what happened at the Hawthorne plant. a. Early reports, such as Clair Turners report and Mark Putnams statement to Business Week, placed money as important. b. The test room participants stated they liked the fact they were able to make more money. c. Chuck Wrege cites a memo to Mayo in which he is told that economic and financial factors were of considerable importance. . As time passed, the Mayo-Roethlisberger theme shifted: (1)Example, Roethlisbergers memo that Mayo would be happy because of some evidence that physiological, not economic, factors were related to output. (2)More emphasis in later writings is placed on social belonging needs, being accepted by the group. (3)A later quote regarding discarding economic man. (Some of this discussion overlaps the critique in Chapter 1 7. You may find it to your liking to combine these differing views of what motivated the social person. ) Chapter 14 The Search for Organizational Integration This chapter focuses on two individuals, Mary Follett and Chester Barnard, both of whom are very important in the evolution of management thought. Follett was chronologically closer to the scientific management era, but intellectually a forerunner of understanding group processes. Barnard, on the other hand, influenced human relations thinking and continues to influence our understanding of organizations and management. A. Mary Parker Follett 1. Basis of her philosophy: a. Johann Fichte, Georg Hegel, and Gestalt psychologists. b. Early experiences led her to realize the need to rethink our ideas bout authority, leadership, and conflict resolution. 2. Conflict Resolution: She saw 4 ways a. Submission if in a conflict situation. b. Struggle, and someone wins and the other loses. c. Compromise, a solution she did not like, especially as it appeared in labor-management collective bargaining. d. Integration, finding a solution that did not involve compromise, submission, or struggle. My students are much more accustomed to bargaining or battle, and less at ease with trying to find a more creative solution. Folletts illustrations do not help our understanding of integration much either. The topic of conflict resolution does engender a lively class discussion if the students are prompted to think about labor-management relations, dating or marital relationships, or even international conflict. 3. Authority and Power a. Essential to integration would be rethinking authority and power. b. She advocated power-with and co-action to replace power-over and coercion. c. Depersonalize orders and follow the law of the situation. Ask your students if there is a similarity here with management by objectives which they may or may not yet be familiar with. d. Authority is based on knowledge and not the will of one person. I comment here that this sounds like F. W. Taylor and the functional foreman. The class may or may not agree. If not, this opens the door to a discussion of authority and influence. e. Power-with required circular response, disclosure and open discussion. f. Follett believed in employee representation plans (Chapter 9) because of cooperation and shared power. 4. Leadership a. Folletts notion of the role of the leader/manager was an extension of her ideas of integration and authority. b. Control could not be achieved without integrated efforts, that is, when interests were not reconciled. c. Control was based on facts, not people; and correlated, not imposed from above. d. Coordination facilitated control. e. Leadership, then, involved defining the purpose of the organi-zation and skills in coordinating and evoking the law of the situation. f. These leadership tasks were not based on the power of the leader, but a reciprocating influence of leaders and followers within the context of the situation. I find Follett fun to teach her ideas are unique and provoke discussion. She is often dismissed as too idealistic, out of touch in a tough world where decisions have to be made without time to implement her techniques. But, in a tough world can we make better decisions because people are involved and co-acting to achieve a common purpose? B. Chester Barnard 1. Cooperative Systems: a. Formal organizations as the kind of cooperation that is conscious, deliberate, and purposeful. b. Formal organizations helped: (1)Maintain an internal equilibrium. (2)Examine external forces to see if adjustments must be made. An open systems viewpoint. (3)Analyze the functions of executives. c. Organizations needed to be cooperative systems because people had choices and they could choose to contribute or not to contribute. d. The executive functions could modify actions and motives through influence and control. e. Effective-Efficient: individual and organizational goals might differ and Barnard expressed this as: (1)Effective, meet the goals of the organization. (2)Efficient, meeting individual motives, and only the individual could determine whether or not this was occurring. Students may find Barnards terms mean something different from previous definitions of effective and efficient. Mayo used logic of efficiency where Barnard meant effective. My advice to the class is to keep these definitions in mind only for Barnard. . The only measure of efficiency according to Barnard was the organizations capacity to survive. That is, to provide adequate inducements to satisfy individual motives to secure their cooperation. At this point, another question occurs: an organization must also be effective or it may not be able to be efficient. Rather than being dichotomous, are effective and efficient really co-acti ng? 2. Elements of formal organizations: Barnard defined a formal organization as a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons. The late Lyndall Urwick felt this definition was too broad, and quipped: under Barnards definition, a boy kissing a girl is also a formal organization. a. Willingness to cooperate, and this was to be facilitated by the offerings of objective and subjective incentives. Perhaps somewhat controversial is Barnards notion that this meant self-abnegation, surrender of control of personal conduct, and depersonalization of personal actions. Did this mean we lose our individuality? If so, then why did he stress the need to satisfy individual motives? b. Purpose, or objectives of the organization. Although individual and organizational motives were different, individuals could achieve their motives by working toward organizational purposes. This reminds me of Douglas McGregors Theory Y, which will be presented in Chapter 20. c. Communication, for which Barnard developed 3 principles: (1)Channels should be definitely known. (2)Objective authority (I interpret this to mean formal authority) requires a definite channel of communication. (3)Keep the line of communication short and direct. d. Informal organization, where Barnard also saw 3 universal elements: 1)Communication. (2)Maintenance of cohesiveness. (3)Maintenance of feelings of personal integrity and self-respect. It might be worthwhile to ask the class how Barnards notion of the informal organization compares with F. W. Taylors systematic soldiering and Elton Mayos illogical logic of sentiments. 3. Acceptance Theory of Authority a. Barnards definition of authority included the notion that a communication must be accepted by the organizational member. b. Authority did not reside in persons of authority, but in a members acceptance of authority. c. Individuals would consent to authority if four conditions were met: (1)They understood the communicated order. (2)They believed the order was consistent with the organizations purpose. (3)The order was compatible with their personal interests as a whole. (4)They were physically and mentally able to comply with the order. Depending on how much time you wish to spend on this topic, there are a number of implicit issues here regarding interpersonal communications, the clarity of the organizations purpose, and the morality/ethical possibil- ities regarding personal interests. d. Zone of indifference, Barnards phrase for explaining how an organization could function since members could accept or reject authority on almost any occasion. Individuals could be very indifferent, leading to a wider possibility of acceptance, or less indifferent. This depended on the individuals weighing the inducements, burdens, and sacrifices. In class, I may say: as your instructor, lets assume I have some a uthority in this class. How far can I go? Would you stand in your class seats if requested? Would you etc.? I find a fairly wide acceptance of reasonable requests, but for a promise of better grades the students become a lot more amenable to my suggestions. In some ways, this is scary. e. Authority of leadership, Barnards way of expressing the potentiality of assent created when people had respect for and confidence in their leaders. f. Authority still existed in the organizational hierarchy, in formal authority, but authority in the final analysis still rested with the organizational member. 4. The Functions of the Executive. Three, according to Barnard: a. Provide a system of communication. b. Promote securing personal efforts. c. Formulate and define organizational purpose. d. Decision making and â€Å"strategic factors. † Strategic factors was an idea that Barnard took from John R. Commons. e. In â€Å"logical† and â€Å"non-logical† decision making, Barnard reveals the importance of intuition, tacit knowledge, to go with logical decision making processes. 5. Moral leadership for Barnard involved executives having a high moral code, demonstrating it as an example, and seeking to create this morality in others. For discussion, this can lead you into recent examples of failures as well as successes of executives, financiers, and others in displaying their moral leadership. Chapter 15 People and Organizations My students refer to Chapters 15 and 16 as telephone book chapters, lots of names and some intellectual addresses where contributions were made. These are accurate assessments so I suggest that you tailor your assignments to fit your course objectives. In Chapter 15, I focus on Moreno, Lewin, Maslow, Scanlon, Lincoln, McCormick, Simon, and Whyte as well as the leadership studies at Michigan and Ohio State. For my purpose, these capsulize the research in group dynamics, changing behavior, job design, motivation, participation, leadership, decision making and socio-technical systems. A. People at Work: The Micro View I approach this as organizational behavior before it acquired that label. The bases of modern OB were being built during this era. 1. Eduard Lindeman a. Early study of group behavior in member interaction, participation, and attitudes. b. Origin of phrase participant-observer. c. Lindeman was a cohort of Mary Follett and they appear to have influenced each other. . Jacob Moreno a. Sociometry, trying to classify individuals into groups that were capable of harmonious relationships. b. Sociogram, mapping interpersonal preferences. Note the difference he found when preferences were for social vs. task mates. c. Psychodrama, a cathartic experience for an individual in a group setting. d. Sociodrama, the basis of role playing. e. Role reversal, taking the role of others and a us eful technique for working with culturally diverse groups. 3. Kurt Lewin a. Group dynamics and field theory. Gestalt notions for understanding individuals in groups. Note Moreno’s influence on Lewin. b. Quasi-stationary equilibrium. Groups never achieved a steady state but were continuously in a process of mutual adaptation. (This notion has led me to have numerous doubts about the findings of small group research projects. ) c. Leadership, perhaps an inappropriate label for a study of social climate in 10-11 year old boys. Lewin asked his counselors to role play democratic or authoritarian styles and found what he expected in the boys reactions. One counselor, however, misplayed his role and, rather than throwing the data out, Lewin called this laissez-faire. This style has persisted in the literature despite its inaccuracy. d. Changing behavior, Lewins finding that group participation facilitated the change process. His three step model is still a foundation for contemporary â€Å"action research† and organizational change: unfreezing through participation; moving to the new level; and freezing (reinforcing) the desired new behavi or. e. Lewins work became the basis for sensitivity training through his influence on Leland Bradford. B. Human and Industrial Relations 1. National Labor Relations Act of 1935 led to a new emphasis on collective bargaining and labor-management relations. 2. Interdisciplinary research such as the University of Chicago Committee on Human Relations. 3. Beginnings of industrial relations centers at various universities. 4. Increased interest in human relations training. C. Changing Assumptions about People at Work 1. Motivation, both Henry Murray and A. H. Maslow and the development of a need theory of motivation. a. Maslow and the hierarchy of human needs. b. Maslow’s â€Å"humanistic psychology† and the Third Force in psychology. . Joseph Scanlon, union official and later a colleague of Douglas McGregor at MIT. The Scanlon Plan: (1)A union-management productivity plan whereby groups of workers got bonuses for proposing savings in labor costs. (2)Group oriented. (3)Not profit sharing. d. James F. Lincoln, rewarding individual efforts based on skill ratings. (1)Wages and benefits were comparable to the Clevela nd area labor market. (2)In addition, bonuses were paid for performance based on quality and quantity of output as well as self-management (or, in contemporary terms, â€Å"empowerment†). 3)Bonuses were typically substantial until recent years. Have a class member check Lincoln Electric’s web site and/or Cleveland area newspapers for the latest on employee bonuses. 2. Job Enlargement, research in the 1940s by Walker and Guest indicated some possible improvements if jobs were designed to lengthen (broaden) the work cycle (you may want to stress that this concerned combining jobs rather than increasing job depth). 3. Participation, a power-equalization thesis of this period to play down the importance of the organizational hierarchy. 1)James Worthy, at Sears, Roebuck argued for flatter structures and decentralization. He also worked with the University of Chicagos Committee on Human Relations to study the impact of structure on employee morale. (2)William B. Given, Jr. , a bottom-up approach. (3)Charles P. McCormick, a plan for participation which is still operative in this tea, spice, and extract firm. Junior boards were created (multiple management) to improve communications, manager development, and coordination through participation. 4. Leadership a. T. W. Adorno and the F (for Fascist) scale. b. Rensis Likert and the University of Michigan studies of leadership orientations: (1)An employee orientation, stressing interpersonal relations. (2)A production orientation, focus on producing. (3)An employee orientation, coupled with more general supervision, led to higher productivity, better morale, lower turnover, greater group cohesiveness, and less employee anxiety. c. The leadership studies at Ohio State University, largely led by Ralph Stogdill and Carroll Shartle, also found a two dimensional orientation. (1)Initiating structure, acting to further the work objectives. 2)Consideration, emphasizing followers needs and interpersonal relations. d. Despite differing terminology, leadership was viewed by each as a two-by-two matrix of leader behaviors in which being people-oriented was not mutually exclusive of a production orientation. D. People at Work: The Macro View 1. William Foote Whytes study of restaurants. a. Status in the social system ran counter to the work flow and who initiated work for others in the technical system. b. Whytes work was key to the idea of socio-technical systems. c. Whyte is noted for â€Å"participatory action research. † 2. E. Edward] Wight Bakke, the interactions of the formal and informal systems; the bonds of organization; and the fusion process involving organizational position and personal views of standing or status. 3. Tavistock Institute and the work of Elliott Jacques. 4. Pioneering study of Trist and Bamforth on the impact of technology on The social system. 5. Herbert A. Simon, greatly influenced in his early work by Chester Barnard, was interested in how choices (decisions) were made: a. Limits that â€Å"bound the area of rationality made it difficult to achieve the best possible decision. Note Simon’s later use of the term â€Å"bounded rationality. b. Satisficing or good enough decisions were a result of the decision makers limited rationality. c. Composite decisions would be better because of th e limits on one persons capability to achieve better solutions; participation by different groups would be an improvement. d. With James March, Simon authored the influential book Organizations. They viewed organizations as complex networks of decision processes that influence human choices. 6. George C. Homans was influenced by the writings of Vilfredo Pareto through the seminars of L. J. Henderson. Another study of the relationships created when work and social systems interact. Various dimensions were found in: a. Activities, formal or informal. b. Interactions, prescribed or emergent. c. Sentiments, the elusive nature of feelings. Chapter 16 Organizations and People Again, one of those chapters with numerous names. The broad intent of the chapter is to prepare the foundation for a later discussion of management and organization theory. In contrast with Chapter 15, the focus is on formal organization, re